A type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry several channels at once. Cable TV, for example, uses broadband transmission. In contrast, baseband transmission allows only one signal at a time.
Most communications between computers, including the majority of local-area networks, use baseband communications. An exception is B-ISDN networks, which employ broadband transmission.
Friday, November 17, 2006
What is Bandwidth?
What is Bandwidth?
What is bandwidth at all? Why does it matter when signing up for a web hosting account?
Definition:
Bandwidth = The amount of data passing through a connection over a given time. It is usually measured in bps (bits-per-second) or Mbps (Megabits per Second).
Many web hosts use this term (bandwidth) in place of (data) transfer allowance. The actual data transfer allowance is important to you as the hosting client. Transfer allowance is the amount of data that is actually allowed to be transferred between the server (your website in this case) and the client(s) who access your website when browsing the Internet.
How can you measure the amount of transfer allowance you will approx. need for your website? To find out what your transfer requirements are, you will need to look at the actual data transfer that your website will create.
For example, if you have a website with 5 pages each is about 50 kb in size. If a visitor of your website views one page, about 1 x 50 kb of data transfer is being used. If the person views all 5 pages then you get 5 x 50 kb or 250 kb of data transfer being used. Now imagine your website gets 100 visitors a day who all look at your 5 pages. 100 X 250 KB = 25,000 KB (approx. 24.41 Megs). Now put this into 30 days of a month and you get the approx. of data transfer allowance (for the matter: bandwidth) you will need to operate your website.
Keep in mind, that you should allow enough room to grow and that there is actually more data being transferred when you use email and/or FTP on the same account. Uploading your website uses part of your data transfer allowance.
Unlimited bandwidth or data transfer allowance - this is good, isn't it?! "I see this all the time when searching for the best deal in web hosting!"
No, it is not good. There is no such thing like unlimited bandwidth or data transfer. Bandwidth is limited by hardware. A 'pipe' only has a certain size (throughput). It can't just grow in size when required. Also - a web host as to pay for the data transfer being used. He will be charged by his upstream provider (AT&T, Sprint, Level3, etc.). Try to find an 'unlimited' offer for web hosts on their websites. You won't find it. There is always a price tag on data transfer and bandwidth. Stay away from an 'unlimited' offer. If you really start using more and more bandwidth, the web host will you cut you off at one point because you start eating up his revenue.
Copyright Web Hosting Resource Kit
What is bandwidth at all? Why does it matter when signing up for a web hosting account?
Definition:
Bandwidth = The amount of data passing through a connection over a given time. It is usually measured in bps (bits-per-second) or Mbps (Megabits per Second).
Many web hosts use this term (bandwidth) in place of (data) transfer allowance. The actual data transfer allowance is important to you as the hosting client. Transfer allowance is the amount of data that is actually allowed to be transferred between the server (your website in this case) and the client(s) who access your website when browsing the Internet.
How can you measure the amount of transfer allowance you will approx. need for your website? To find out what your transfer requirements are, you will need to look at the actual data transfer that your website will create.
For example, if you have a website with 5 pages each is about 50 kb in size. If a visitor of your website views one page, about 1 x 50 kb of data transfer is being used. If the person views all 5 pages then you get 5 x 50 kb or 250 kb of data transfer being used. Now imagine your website gets 100 visitors a day who all look at your 5 pages. 100 X 250 KB = 25,000 KB (approx. 24.41 Megs). Now put this into 30 days of a month and you get the approx. of data transfer allowance (for the matter: bandwidth) you will need to operate your website.
Keep in mind, that you should allow enough room to grow and that there is actually more data being transferred when you use email and/or FTP on the same account. Uploading your website uses part of your data transfer allowance.
Unlimited bandwidth or data transfer allowance - this is good, isn't it?! "I see this all the time when searching for the best deal in web hosting!"
No, it is not good. There is no such thing like unlimited bandwidth or data transfer. Bandwidth is limited by hardware. A 'pipe' only has a certain size (throughput). It can't just grow in size when required. Also - a web host as to pay for the data transfer being used. He will be charged by his upstream provider (AT&T, Sprint, Level3, etc.). Try to find an 'unlimited' offer for web hosts on their websites. You won't find it. There is always a price tag on data transfer and bandwidth. Stay away from an 'unlimited' offer. If you really start using more and more bandwidth, the web host will you cut you off at one point because you start eating up his revenue.
Copyright Web Hosting Resource Kit
what is router ?
(row´ter) (n.) A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.
Very little filtering of data is done through routers
Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to communicate with each other and configure the best route between any two hosts.
Very little filtering of data is done through routers
what is hardware ?
hardware
DEFINITION - In information technology, hardware is the physical aspect of computers, telecommunications, and other devices. The term arose as a way to distinguish the "box" and the electronic circuitry and components of a computer from the program you put in it to make it do things. The program came to be known as the software.
Hardware implies permanence and invariability. Software or programming can easily be varied. You can put an entirely new program in the hardware and make it create an entirely new experience for the user. You can, however, change the modular configurations that most computers come with by adding new adapters or cards that extend the computer's capabilities.
Like software, hardware is a collective term. Hardware includes not only the computer proper but also the cables, connectors, power supply units, and peripheral devices such as the keyboard, mouse, audio speakers, and printers.
Hardware is sometimes used as a term collectively describing the physical aspects of telephony and telecommunications network infrastructure.
DEFINITION - In information technology, hardware is the physical aspect of computers, telecommunications, and other devices. The term arose as a way to distinguish the "box" and the electronic circuitry and components of a computer from the program you put in it to make it do things. The program came to be known as the software.
Hardware implies permanence and invariability. Software or programming can easily be varied. You can put an entirely new program in the hardware and make it create an entirely new experience for the user. You can, however, change the modular configurations that most computers come with by adding new adapters or cards that extend the computer's capabilities.
Like software, hardware is a collective term. Hardware includes not only the computer proper but also the cables, connectors, power supply units, and peripheral devices such as the keyboard, mouse, audio speakers, and printers.
Hardware is sometimes used as a term collectively describing the physical aspects of telephony and telecommunications network infrastructure.
what is a hard disc ?
A magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The term hard is used to distinguish it from a soft, or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more data and are faster than floppy disks. A hard disk, for example, can store anywhere from 10 to more than 100 gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a maximum storage capacity of 1.4 megabytes.
A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. For example, a typical 84 megabyte hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four sides) and 1,053 cylinders.
In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies, although it is possible to buy removable hard disks.
A single hard disk usually consists of several platters. Each platter requires two read/write heads, one for each side. All the read/write heads are attached to a single access arm so that they cannot move independently. Each platter has the same number of tracks, and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder. For example, a typical 84 megabyte hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four sides) and 1,053 cylinders.
In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies, although it is possible to buy removable hard disks.
what is Software Engineering (SE) ?
Software Engineering (SE) is the design, development, and documentation of software by applying technologies and practices from computer science, project management, engineering, application domains, interface design, digital asset management and other fields.
The term software engineering was popularized after 1968[1], during the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference (held in Garmisch, Germany) by its chairman F.L. Bauer, and has been in widespread use since.
The term software engineering has been commonly used with a variety of distinct meanings:
* As the informal contemporary term for the broad range of activities that was formerly called programming and systems analysis;[2]
* As the broad term for all aspects of the practice of computer programming, as opposed to the theory of computer programming, which is called computer science;[3]
* As the term embodying the advocacy of a specific approach to computer programming, one that urges that it be treated as an engineering discipline rather than an art or a craft, and advocates the codification of recommended practices in the form of software engineering methodologies.[4]
* Software engineering is "(1) the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, that is, the application of engineering to software," and "(2) the study of approaches as in (1)." – IEEE Standard
The term software engineering was popularized after 1968[1], during the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference (held in Garmisch, Germany) by its chairman F.L. Bauer, and has been in widespread use since.
The term software engineering has been commonly used with a variety of distinct meanings:
* As the informal contemporary term for the broad range of activities that was formerly called programming and systems analysis;[2]
* As the broad term for all aspects of the practice of computer programming, as opposed to the theory of computer programming, which is called computer science;[3]
* As the term embodying the advocacy of a specific approach to computer programming, one that urges that it be treated as an engineering discipline rather than an art or a craft, and advocates the codification of recommended practices in the form of software engineering methodologies.[4]
* Software engineering is "(1) the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, that is, the application of engineering to software," and "(2) the study of approaches as in (1)." – IEEE Standard
what is Software piracy ?
The unauthorized copying of software. Most retail programs are licensed for use at just one computer site or for use by only one user at any time. By buying the software, you become a licensed user rather than an owner (see EULA). You are allowed to make copies of the program for backup purposes, but it is against the law to give copies to friends and colleagues.
Software piracy is all but impossible to stop, although software companies are launching more and more lawsuits against major infractors. Originally, software companies tried to stop software piracy by copy-protecting their software. This strategy failed, however, because it was inconvenient for users and was not 100 percent foolproof. Most software now requires some sort of registration, which may discourage would-be pirates, but doesn't really stop software piracy.
An entirely different approach to software piracy, called shareware, acknowledges the futility of trying to stop people from copying software and instead relies on people's honesty. Shareware publishers encourage users to give copies of programs to friends and colleagues but ask everyone who uses a program regularly to pay a registration fee to the program's author directly.
Commercial programs that are made available to the public illegally are often called warez.
Software piracy is all but impossible to stop, although software companies are launching more and more lawsuits against major infractors. Originally, software companies tried to stop software piracy by copy-protecting their software. This strategy failed, however, because it was inconvenient for users and was not 100 percent foolproof. Most software now requires some sort of registration, which may discourage would-be pirates, but doesn't really stop software piracy.
An entirely different approach to software piracy, called shareware, acknowledges the futility of trying to stop people from copying software and instead relies on people's honesty. Shareware publishers encourage users to give copies of programs to friends and colleagues but ask everyone who uses a program regularly to pay a registration fee to the program's author directly.
Commercial programs that are made available to the public illegally are often called warez.
what is software ?
Computer instructions or data. Anything that can be stored electronically is software. The storage devices and display devices are hardware.
The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem."
The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded.
Software is often divided into two categories:
# systems software : Includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function.
# applications software : Includes programs that do real work for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems fall under the category of applications software
The terms software and hardware are used as both nouns and adjectives. For example, you can say: "The problem lies in the software," meaning that there is a problem with the program or data, not with the computer itself. You can also say: "It's a software problem."
The distinction between software and hardware is sometimes confusing because they are so integrally linked. Clearly, when you purchase a program, you are buying software. But to buy the software, you need to buy the disk (hardware) on which the software is recorded.
Software is often divided into two categories:
# systems software : Includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function.
# applications software : Includes programs that do real work for users. For example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems fall under the category of applications software
What is Sikhism ?
What is Sikhism
Belief in Waheguru / God
Equality of man and woman
Belief in the Guru Granth Sahib / Guru
Belief in Freedom and Justice for all
Love for All
"Nanak Naam Chardikala, Tere Bane Sarbat da Bhalla"
(O God! Through Satguru Nanak, may your name be exalted and may All Humanity prosper according to your Will).
ABOVE ALL: Sewa Simran & Sangat
Sharing earnings with others who are less fortunate - "Vand Chakna"
Always remember God - "Naam Japna"
Live a honest Life and to earn their living with honest labor - "Kirat Karna"
With the Divine Love & Blessings of Waheguru Ji, I wish you all peace, love, light (enlightenment), health, happiness & prosperity in life always !
__________________
Prayer = TALKING to God; Meditation/Simran = LISTENING to God !
With the Divine Love & Blessings of WAHEGURU Ji, I wish you peace, love, light (enlightenment), health & happiness in life!
Belief in Waheguru / God
Equality of man and woman
Belief in the Guru Granth Sahib / Guru
Belief in Freedom and Justice for all
Love for All
"Nanak Naam Chardikala, Tere Bane Sarbat da Bhalla"
(O God! Through Satguru Nanak, may your name be exalted and may All Humanity prosper according to your Will).
ABOVE ALL: Sewa Simran & Sangat
Sharing earnings with others who are less fortunate - "Vand Chakna"
Always remember God - "Naam Japna"
Live a honest Life and to earn their living with honest labor - "Kirat Karna"
With the Divine Love & Blessings of Waheguru Ji, I wish you all peace, love, light (enlightenment), health, happiness & prosperity in life always !
__________________
Prayer = TALKING to God; Meditation/Simran = LISTENING to God !
With the Divine Love & Blessings of WAHEGURU Ji, I wish you peace, love, light (enlightenment), health & happiness in life!
What is Christianity?
What is Christianity?
Christianity is a religion based upon the teachings and miracles of Jesus. Jesus is the Christ. The word "christ" means anointed one. Christ is not Jesus' last name. Jesus is the anointed one from God the Father who came to this world, fulfilled the Old Testament laws and prophecies, died on the cross, and rose from the dead physically. He performed many miracles which were recorded in the Gospels by the eyewitnesses. He is divine in nature as well as human. Thus, He has two natures and is worthy of worship and prayer.
Christianity teaches that there is only one God in all existence, that God made the universe, the Earth, and created Adam and Eve. God created man in His image. This does not mean that God has a body of flesh and bones. Image means the likeness of God's character, rationality, etc. Because we are made in the image of God, every person is worthy of respect and honor. Furthermore, this means that we did not evolve through random processes from a single celled organism into rational, emotional beings.
God created Adam and Eve and put them in the Garden of Eden and gave them the freedom to choose between right and wrong. They chose to sin. Sin is doing that which is contrary to the nature and will of God. For example, God cannot lie; therefore, lying is sin. The sin of disobeying God that Adam and Eve committed resulted in them being expelled from the Garden of Eden as well as suffering the effect of death.
As a result of their sin, their children and all of us inherited a sinful nature. In other words, our offspring are not perfect in nature -- we don't have to teach children to be selfish. They know it naturally. That which is sinful cannot produce that which is not sinful.
Christianity teaches that God is a Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, not three Gods), that Jesus Christ is the second person of the Trinity, that Jesus died on the cross and rose from the dead physically, that all people are under the righteous judgment of God because all people have sinned against God. It teaches that Jesus is the only way to be saved from the coming judgment of God and that salvation is received by faith in the work of Christ on the cross and not by anything that we can do to please God.
Where all other religions in the world teach that we must do some sort of good in cooperation with God in order to achieve the right to be in God's presence, Christianity is the only religion that teaches salvation by grace. This means that we are not made right before God by our efforts, sincerity, or works. Instead, we are made right before God by faith in what Christ did on the cross.
Christianity further teaches that once a person is "born again" (becomes saved) that the Holy Spirit lives in that person and the person is changed: "Therefore if any man is in Christ, he is a new creature; the old things passed away; behold, new things have come," (2 Cor. 5:17). This means that God actually lives in the person and the Christian then experiences a true and living relationship with God.
Therefore, "What is Christianity?" is best answered by saying that it is a relationship with the true and living God through the person of Jesus Christ by whom we are forgiven of our sins and escape the righteous judgment of God.
Christianity is a religion based upon the teachings and miracles of Jesus. Jesus is the Christ. The word "christ" means anointed one. Christ is not Jesus' last name. Jesus is the anointed one from God the Father who came to this world, fulfilled the Old Testament laws and prophecies, died on the cross, and rose from the dead physically. He performed many miracles which were recorded in the Gospels by the eyewitnesses. He is divine in nature as well as human. Thus, He has two natures and is worthy of worship and prayer.
Christianity teaches that there is only one God in all existence, that God made the universe, the Earth, and created Adam and Eve. God created man in His image. This does not mean that God has a body of flesh and bones. Image means the likeness of God's character, rationality, etc. Because we are made in the image of God, every person is worthy of respect and honor. Furthermore, this means that we did not evolve through random processes from a single celled organism into rational, emotional beings.
God created Adam and Eve and put them in the Garden of Eden and gave them the freedom to choose between right and wrong. They chose to sin. Sin is doing that which is contrary to the nature and will of God. For example, God cannot lie; therefore, lying is sin. The sin of disobeying God that Adam and Eve committed resulted in them being expelled from the Garden of Eden as well as suffering the effect of death.
As a result of their sin, their children and all of us inherited a sinful nature. In other words, our offspring are not perfect in nature -- we don't have to teach children to be selfish. They know it naturally. That which is sinful cannot produce that which is not sinful.
Christianity teaches that God is a Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, not three Gods), that Jesus Christ is the second person of the Trinity, that Jesus died on the cross and rose from the dead physically, that all people are under the righteous judgment of God because all people have sinned against God. It teaches that Jesus is the only way to be saved from the coming judgment of God and that salvation is received by faith in the work of Christ on the cross and not by anything that we can do to please God.
Where all other religions in the world teach that we must do some sort of good in cooperation with God in order to achieve the right to be in God's presence, Christianity is the only religion that teaches salvation by grace. This means that we are not made right before God by our efforts, sincerity, or works. Instead, we are made right before God by faith in what Christ did on the cross.
Christianity further teaches that once a person is "born again" (becomes saved) that the Holy Spirit lives in that person and the person is changed: "Therefore if any man is in Christ, he is a new creature; the old things passed away; behold, new things have come," (2 Cor. 5:17). This means that God actually lives in the person and the Christian then experiences a true and living relationship with God.
Therefore, "What is Christianity?" is best answered by saying that it is a relationship with the true and living God through the person of Jesus Christ by whom we are forgiven of our sins and escape the righteous judgment of God.
What is Hinduism ?
What is Hinduism
What is in general Hindu religion or philosophy?
Hinduism is a way of living according to one's understanding of principles of the Vedas and the Upanishads. The Vedas are revealed knowledge. Just as the knowledge of gravity was revealed to Newton, similarly, in India, many Rishis or Seers were awakened to certain transcendental Eternal Truths. These Rishis realized that their real nature was not concerned with or linked with 'body or mind', nor was it dependent on sense perceptions, but was in fact Divine and identical with Universal Consciousness.
The Upanishads
These Seers realized their oneness with all beings, and even identified themselves with Transcendental Truth beyond all beings. The state of altered consciousness in which the Seers become one with Truth is spoken of as Samadhi. The Self-realized Seers termed this Reality as Atman, Brahman, Pure Consciousness, or Supreme Being. In course of time, the word God was also interchangeably used with Brahman or Atman.
This state of being one with Brahman or Atman was transient but very intense, and many a person gave up his or her body in this blissful state. Thus, their experiences were buried or cremated with them.
Fortunately, a few Seers could come back from the state of Transcendental Consciousness to human consciousness, and they were able to express, albeit sketchily, their experiences of that state. They, and their disciples, tried to describe the state that was beyond words and speech. Therefore, their words were inadequate to give full account of the nature of those experiences and of the Truth. The Upanishads contain closest possible approximation of such transcendental states in the language full of poetic richness, similes, and metaphors. But as the Seers lived in different time, culture, and place, the text describing their experiences appeared different.
However, one thing was certain and common: That the state they experienced or realized was full of Bliss, beyond comparison with any pleasure or joy obtained by one or all the five senses. It was much higher than sensuality of sex, much enthralling than the sweetness of music, more beautiful than any scenery experienced by the eyes, or any taste perceived by the tongue. Secondly, these Seers felt, out of compassion and love, that everyone should experience such a wonderful and unique state. They were also sure that every being is potentially capable of reaching there, because it was the inner and real nature of all!
The Yoga and Rituals
These rishis, accordingly, prescribed certain methods and practices for various persons according to their aptitude and spiritual development. They felt that certain people were almost ready to get the taste of Bliss. They called them 'adhikari', i.e. having ability and qualifications to undertake and fulfill the ardent spiritual disciplines required to realize the Transcendental Reality. Others needed some more time, for their attachment to worldly concerns and senses was intense. And therefore, these people needed or required to undertake certain sacrifices before they became fit for realization of the highest knowledge. Thus, Yagna (sacrifices) came into existence. From birth to death, in the ceremonies of marriage and childbirth, on every family and social occasion, certain rituals were laid down that helped in imparting certain measure of self-sacrifice (detachment from bodily pleasures) and control of senses.
Thus, the Vedas were divided into two parts:
1) Karma-Kanda (ritual or ceremonial portion), and
2) Jnana-Kanda (knowledge portion -Upanishads).
The Caste System
Unfortunately, this simple factual necessity and social reality was usurped to their own benefit by higher caste Brahmins and unfortunately that paved the way for caste system in medieval India. Brahmins were respected for their knowledge of and authority over the Vedas and the Upanishads; second in societal order were the Kshatriyas (warrior caste); third were the mercantile class (Vaishyas); and the last and unfortunate were the Shudras (lower caste).
The brahmins, instead of aspiring for realization of Atman, started to 'teach' the Vedas to other two castes - Kshatriya and Vaishya, and prohibited Shudras from even listening to the Scriptures! They took over themselves the sole custody of both the karma-kanda and the jnana-kanda, and forced the shudras to serve the higher castes. Shudras were thus victims of inhuman atrocities, and were denied access to even secular knowledge - simple reading and writing. Thus, like slaves, the shudras labored and worked for the three higher castes.
Gradually, over centuries, Kshatriya and Vaishya joined the league of Brahmins to acquire and enjoy material prosperity and social status. The Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas became important social force as the kings and the merchants respectively. Brahmins found important positions in royal courts as 'performers of rituals', the priests. This 'job' was less arduous and taxing as compared to spiritual practices meant for realization of the Highest Truth, Brahman. Thus, the Brahmins de facto became serving priests. They gave up their original role as 'seekers after Truth' and were, instead, busy in seeking wealth and position. This is the definition of decline of Dharma (religion).
Divine Incarnations (Men of God): The Avataras
When the path to self-realization is forgotten in favour of hankering after worldly pleasures, the Reality embodies itself as a Divine Incarnation -Avatara- to guide the humankind regarding true religion, and show true path towards the forgotten aim in life, to wit - Self Realization.
The spark of holiness, purity, and divinity present in every human heart coalesces to take a concrete shape as a divine person in every religion, in all chimes and climes. Such great scientists of spirituality show the path of further progress in human intellect and evolution. They are the embodiments of the aspirations of millions; aspiration to manifest divinity within, aspiration to get liberated. Thus from time to time, India saw incarnations of Men of God: Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, Lord Buddha, Bhagavan Mahavir, Shankaracharya, Guru Nanak, Sri Ramakrishna, and many others.
Influenced by their teachings, Dharma or religion or spirituality still survives in India, although appearing at times in its distorted form.
What is in general Hindu religion or philosophy?
Hinduism is a way of living according to one's understanding of principles of the Vedas and the Upanishads. The Vedas are revealed knowledge. Just as the knowledge of gravity was revealed to Newton, similarly, in India, many Rishis or Seers were awakened to certain transcendental Eternal Truths. These Rishis realized that their real nature was not concerned with or linked with 'body or mind', nor was it dependent on sense perceptions, but was in fact Divine and identical with Universal Consciousness.
The Upanishads
These Seers realized their oneness with all beings, and even identified themselves with Transcendental Truth beyond all beings. The state of altered consciousness in which the Seers become one with Truth is spoken of as Samadhi. The Self-realized Seers termed this Reality as Atman, Brahman, Pure Consciousness, or Supreme Being. In course of time, the word God was also interchangeably used with Brahman or Atman.
This state of being one with Brahman or Atman was transient but very intense, and many a person gave up his or her body in this blissful state. Thus, their experiences were buried or cremated with them.
Fortunately, a few Seers could come back from the state of Transcendental Consciousness to human consciousness, and they were able to express, albeit sketchily, their experiences of that state. They, and their disciples, tried to describe the state that was beyond words and speech. Therefore, their words were inadequate to give full account of the nature of those experiences and of the Truth. The Upanishads contain closest possible approximation of such transcendental states in the language full of poetic richness, similes, and metaphors. But as the Seers lived in different time, culture, and place, the text describing their experiences appeared different.
However, one thing was certain and common: That the state they experienced or realized was full of Bliss, beyond comparison with any pleasure or joy obtained by one or all the five senses. It was much higher than sensuality of sex, much enthralling than the sweetness of music, more beautiful than any scenery experienced by the eyes, or any taste perceived by the tongue. Secondly, these Seers felt, out of compassion and love, that everyone should experience such a wonderful and unique state. They were also sure that every being is potentially capable of reaching there, because it was the inner and real nature of all!
The Yoga and Rituals
These rishis, accordingly, prescribed certain methods and practices for various persons according to their aptitude and spiritual development. They felt that certain people were almost ready to get the taste of Bliss. They called them 'adhikari', i.e. having ability and qualifications to undertake and fulfill the ardent spiritual disciplines required to realize the Transcendental Reality. Others needed some more time, for their attachment to worldly concerns and senses was intense. And therefore, these people needed or required to undertake certain sacrifices before they became fit for realization of the highest knowledge. Thus, Yagna (sacrifices) came into existence. From birth to death, in the ceremonies of marriage and childbirth, on every family and social occasion, certain rituals were laid down that helped in imparting certain measure of self-sacrifice (detachment from bodily pleasures) and control of senses.
Thus, the Vedas were divided into two parts:
1) Karma-Kanda (ritual or ceremonial portion), and
2) Jnana-Kanda (knowledge portion -Upanishads).
The Caste System
Unfortunately, this simple factual necessity and social reality was usurped to their own benefit by higher caste Brahmins and unfortunately that paved the way for caste system in medieval India. Brahmins were respected for their knowledge of and authority over the Vedas and the Upanishads; second in societal order were the Kshatriyas (warrior caste); third were the mercantile class (Vaishyas); and the last and unfortunate were the Shudras (lower caste).
The brahmins, instead of aspiring for realization of Atman, started to 'teach' the Vedas to other two castes - Kshatriya and Vaishya, and prohibited Shudras from even listening to the Scriptures! They took over themselves the sole custody of both the karma-kanda and the jnana-kanda, and forced the shudras to serve the higher castes. Shudras were thus victims of inhuman atrocities, and were denied access to even secular knowledge - simple reading and writing. Thus, like slaves, the shudras labored and worked for the three higher castes.
Gradually, over centuries, Kshatriya and Vaishya joined the league of Brahmins to acquire and enjoy material prosperity and social status. The Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas became important social force as the kings and the merchants respectively. Brahmins found important positions in royal courts as 'performers of rituals', the priests. This 'job' was less arduous and taxing as compared to spiritual practices meant for realization of the Highest Truth, Brahman. Thus, the Brahmins de facto became serving priests. They gave up their original role as 'seekers after Truth' and were, instead, busy in seeking wealth and position. This is the definition of decline of Dharma (religion).
Divine Incarnations (Men of God): The Avataras
When the path to self-realization is forgotten in favour of hankering after worldly pleasures, the Reality embodies itself as a Divine Incarnation -Avatara- to guide the humankind regarding true religion, and show true path towards the forgotten aim in life, to wit - Self Realization.
The spark of holiness, purity, and divinity present in every human heart coalesces to take a concrete shape as a divine person in every religion, in all chimes and climes. Such great scientists of spirituality show the path of further progress in human intellect and evolution. They are the embodiments of the aspirations of millions; aspiration to manifest divinity within, aspiration to get liberated. Thus from time to time, India saw incarnations of Men of God: Sri Rama, Sri Krishna, Lord Buddha, Bhagavan Mahavir, Shankaracharya, Guru Nanak, Sri Ramakrishna, and many others.
Influenced by their teachings, Dharma or religion or spirituality still survives in India, although appearing at times in its distorted form.
What is Zionism?
Zionism is the Jewish national movement of rebirth and renewal in the land of Israel - the historical birthplace of the Jewish people. The yearning to return to Zion, the biblical term for both the Land of Israel and Jerusalem, has been the cornerstone of Jewish religious life since the Jewish exile from the land two thousand years ago, and is embedded in Jewish prayer, ritual, literature and culture.
Modern Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in response to the violent persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe, anti-Semitism in Western Europe. Modern Zionism fused the ancient Jewish biblical and historical ties to the ancestral homeland with the modern concept of nationalism into a vision of establishing a modern Jewish state in the land of Israel.
The "father" of modern Zionism, Austrian journalist Theodor Herzl, consolidated various strands of Zionist thought into an organized political movement, advocating for international recognition of a "Jewish state" and encouraging Jewish immigration to build the land.
Today, decades after the actual founding of a Jewish state, Zionism continues to be the guiding nationalist movement of the majority of Jews around the world who believe in, support and identify with the State of Israel. Zionism, the national aspiration of the Jewish people to a homeland, is to the Jewish people what the liberation movements of Africa and Asia have been to their peoples.
History has demonstrated the need to ensure Jewish security through such a homeland. The re-establishment of Jewish independence in Israel, after centuries of struggle to overcome foreign conquest and exile, is a vindication of the fundamental concepts of the equality of nations and of self-determination. To question the Jewish people's right to national existence and freedom is not only to deny to the Jewish people the right accorded to every other people on this globe, but it is also to deny the central precepts of the United Nations.
Modern Zionism emerged in the late 19th century in response to the violent persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe, anti-Semitism in Western Europe. Modern Zionism fused the ancient Jewish biblical and historical ties to the ancestral homeland with the modern concept of nationalism into a vision of establishing a modern Jewish state in the land of Israel.
The "father" of modern Zionism, Austrian journalist Theodor Herzl, consolidated various strands of Zionist thought into an organized political movement, advocating for international recognition of a "Jewish state" and encouraging Jewish immigration to build the land.
Today, decades after the actual founding of a Jewish state, Zionism continues to be the guiding nationalist movement of the majority of Jews around the world who believe in, support and identify with the State of Israel. Zionism, the national aspiration of the Jewish people to a homeland, is to the Jewish people what the liberation movements of Africa and Asia have been to their peoples.
History has demonstrated the need to ensure Jewish security through such a homeland. The re-establishment of Jewish independence in Israel, after centuries of struggle to overcome foreign conquest and exile, is a vindication of the fundamental concepts of the equality of nations and of self-determination. To question the Jewish people's right to national existence and freedom is not only to deny to the Jewish people the right accorded to every other people on this globe, but it is also to deny the central precepts of the United Nations.
What Is Food Poisoning?
The leftovers in the fridge smelled a little weird, but you went ahead and ate them. You were so hungry, you didn't even heat them up. A couple of hours later, though, you started to feel sick. Powerful waves of pain rumbled through your stomach. They went away, but not for long. Then you even threw up!
That sounds like a case of food poisoning. No one put poison in your food, but bacteria probably grew in the food in the fridge and those bacteria made you sick. Food poisoning can be mild and last just a short time or can be more serious. Let's find out how to avoid it.
What Is Food Poisoning?
Food poisoning comes from eating foods that contain germs like bad bacteria or toxins, which are poisonous substances. Bacteria are all around us, so mild cases of food poisoning are common. You may have had mild food poisoning — with diarrhea and an upset stomach — but your mom or dad just called it a stomach bug or stomach virus.
You might think the solution is to get rid of all the bacteria. But it isn't possible and you wouldn't want to do it, even if you could. Bacteria are all around us, including in food, and sometimes they can be good for you. It's confusing, but one thing is for sure — the bacteria in the rotten leftovers weren't good for you. But you can learn how to avoid those bad germs in food.
Which Germs Are to Blame?
Foods from animals, raw foods, and unwashed vegetables all can contain germs that cause food poisoning. The most likely source is food from animals, like meat, poultry (such as chicken), eggs, milk, and shellfish (such as shrimp).
Some of the most common bacteria are:
* Salmonella (say: sal-meh-neh-luh)
* Listeria (say: lis-tir-ee-uh)
* Campylobacter (say: kam-pye-low-bak-tur)
* E. coli (say: ee kole-eye)
To avoid food poisoning, people need to prepare, cook, and store foods properly.
Do I Have Food Poisoning?
If a person has food poisoning, he or she might:
* have an upset stomach (called nausea, say: naw-zee-uh)
* have stomach cramps
* have diarrhea (say: dy-uh-ree-uh), which may contain blood
* have a fever
Sometimes feeling sick from food poisoning shows up within hours of eating the bad food. At other times, someone may not feel sick until several days later. With mild cases of food poisoning, you will not feel sick for very long and will soon be feeling fine again.
Sometimes it's hard to tell if you have food poisoning or something else. You might do a little detective work and see who else gets the same sickness. Did they eat the same thing you did? If only people who ate that food got sick, food poisoning could be the problem.
It's one thing to get food poisoning from something in your fridge, but imagine how many people could get sick if a restaurant served food that had these bad germs in it. When that happens, people from the health department might get involved and try to figure out what happened and make sure everyone gets the medical care they need.
What Will the Doctor Do?
If you go to the doctor, he or she will ask you a lot of questions about how you're feeling, when you first felt sick, what you ate in the past few days, and if anyone else you know is also sick. The doctor might also take a sample of your stool (poop) and urine (pee) to test for possible germs that might have caused food poisoning.
The type of treatment you'll get for food poisoning will depend on the specific germ that is making you sick. The doctor might give you medicine, but most of the time people who have food poisoning don't need to take medicine.
It's also rare that a kid with food poisoning would need to go to the hospital. Usually, only people who get really dehydrated have to go to the hospital. Being dehydrated means your body has lost too much fluid due to diarrhea and vomiting. A dehydrated person can get fluids and medicine through an IV at the hospital. To keep from getting dehydrated, try to keep drinking fluids when you are sick.
You may also need to go to the hospital if you have blood in your poop. If you do see blood in your poop, you should definitely tell your parents about it.
How to Fight the Germs
Many things can be done to prevent food poisoning from happening. These precautions should be taken at every stage a food takes — from preparation to cooking to storing leftovers. A lot of this responsibility falls on grown-ups, but kids can help fight germs, too. One of the best ways is to wash your hands if you're helping to prepare foods.
When should you wash? Before you start helping — so germs from your hands don't get on the food — and after so you don't pass along germs from the food to yourself or anyone else. If you don't, here's how germs can travel: You help make hamburger patties. You get bad bacteria from the raw ground beef on your hands. You hold your little sister's hand. She uses that hand to eat a snack. Now the bacteria have made it inside and can make her sick.
Other steps you can take to keep your food safe include:
* Wash fruits and vegetables well before eating them.
* Only eat foods that are properly cooked. If you cut into chicken and it looks pink and raw inside, tell a grown-up.
* Look at what you're eating and smell it, too. If something looks or smells different than normal, check with an adult before eating or drinking it. Milk is a good example. If you've ever had a sip of sour milk, you know you never want to taste that again! Mold (which can be green, pink, white, or brown) is also often a sign that food has spoiled.
* If you're going to eat leftovers, ask a grown-up for help heating them up. By heating them, you can kill bacteria that grew while it was in the fridge.
* Check the date. Lots of packaged foods have expiration dates or "sell by" dates. Don't eat a food if today's date is after the expiration date. Use it before it expires. Some of these dates are "sell by," which means that the food should leave store shelves by that time. Ask an adult for help deciding if it's past the sell by date.
* Cover and refrigerate food right away. Sitting at room temperature, bacteria get a good chance to grow. By putting food in the fridge, you're putting the chill on those bad germs!
That sounds like a case of food poisoning. No one put poison in your food, but bacteria probably grew in the food in the fridge and those bacteria made you sick. Food poisoning can be mild and last just a short time or can be more serious. Let's find out how to avoid it.
What Is Food Poisoning?
Food poisoning comes from eating foods that contain germs like bad bacteria or toxins, which are poisonous substances. Bacteria are all around us, so mild cases of food poisoning are common. You may have had mild food poisoning — with diarrhea and an upset stomach — but your mom or dad just called it a stomach bug or stomach virus.
You might think the solution is to get rid of all the bacteria. But it isn't possible and you wouldn't want to do it, even if you could. Bacteria are all around us, including in food, and sometimes they can be good for you. It's confusing, but one thing is for sure — the bacteria in the rotten leftovers weren't good for you. But you can learn how to avoid those bad germs in food.
Which Germs Are to Blame?
Foods from animals, raw foods, and unwashed vegetables all can contain germs that cause food poisoning. The most likely source is food from animals, like meat, poultry (such as chicken), eggs, milk, and shellfish (such as shrimp).
Some of the most common bacteria are:
* Salmonella (say: sal-meh-neh-luh)
* Listeria (say: lis-tir-ee-uh)
* Campylobacter (say: kam-pye-low-bak-tur)
* E. coli (say: ee kole-eye)
To avoid food poisoning, people need to prepare, cook, and store foods properly.
Do I Have Food Poisoning?
If a person has food poisoning, he or she might:
* have an upset stomach (called nausea, say: naw-zee-uh)
* have stomach cramps
* have diarrhea (say: dy-uh-ree-uh), which may contain blood
* have a fever
Sometimes feeling sick from food poisoning shows up within hours of eating the bad food. At other times, someone may not feel sick until several days later. With mild cases of food poisoning, you will not feel sick for very long and will soon be feeling fine again.
Sometimes it's hard to tell if you have food poisoning or something else. You might do a little detective work and see who else gets the same sickness. Did they eat the same thing you did? If only people who ate that food got sick, food poisoning could be the problem.
It's one thing to get food poisoning from something in your fridge, but imagine how many people could get sick if a restaurant served food that had these bad germs in it. When that happens, people from the health department might get involved and try to figure out what happened and make sure everyone gets the medical care they need.
What Will the Doctor Do?
If you go to the doctor, he or she will ask you a lot of questions about how you're feeling, when you first felt sick, what you ate in the past few days, and if anyone else you know is also sick. The doctor might also take a sample of your stool (poop) and urine (pee) to test for possible germs that might have caused food poisoning.
The type of treatment you'll get for food poisoning will depend on the specific germ that is making you sick. The doctor might give you medicine, but most of the time people who have food poisoning don't need to take medicine.
It's also rare that a kid with food poisoning would need to go to the hospital. Usually, only people who get really dehydrated have to go to the hospital. Being dehydrated means your body has lost too much fluid due to diarrhea and vomiting. A dehydrated person can get fluids and medicine through an IV at the hospital. To keep from getting dehydrated, try to keep drinking fluids when you are sick.
You may also need to go to the hospital if you have blood in your poop. If you do see blood in your poop, you should definitely tell your parents about it.
How to Fight the Germs
Many things can be done to prevent food poisoning from happening. These precautions should be taken at every stage a food takes — from preparation to cooking to storing leftovers. A lot of this responsibility falls on grown-ups, but kids can help fight germs, too. One of the best ways is to wash your hands if you're helping to prepare foods.
When should you wash? Before you start helping — so germs from your hands don't get on the food — and after so you don't pass along germs from the food to yourself or anyone else. If you don't, here's how germs can travel: You help make hamburger patties. You get bad bacteria from the raw ground beef on your hands. You hold your little sister's hand. She uses that hand to eat a snack. Now the bacteria have made it inside and can make her sick.
Other steps you can take to keep your food safe include:
* Wash fruits and vegetables well before eating them.
* Only eat foods that are properly cooked. If you cut into chicken and it looks pink and raw inside, tell a grown-up.
* Look at what you're eating and smell it, too. If something looks or smells different than normal, check with an adult before eating or drinking it. Milk is a good example. If you've ever had a sip of sour milk, you know you never want to taste that again! Mold (which can be green, pink, white, or brown) is also often a sign that food has spoiled.
* If you're going to eat leftovers, ask a grown-up for help heating them up. By heating them, you can kill bacteria that grew while it was in the fridge.
* Check the date. Lots of packaged foods have expiration dates or "sell by" dates. Don't eat a food if today's date is after the expiration date. Use it before it expires. Some of these dates are "sell by," which means that the food should leave store shelves by that time. Ask an adult for help deciding if it's past the sell by date.
* Cover and refrigerate food right away. Sitting at room temperature, bacteria get a good chance to grow. By putting food in the fridge, you're putting the chill on those bad germs!
What is food allergy?
What is food allergy?
In principle you can be allergic to all kinds of food, but reactions to shellfish, milk, fish, soya beans, wheat, eggs, nuts as well as fruit and vegetables are most common.
Food allergy is an allergic reaction - a hypersensitivity reaction, to something that has been eaten. However, it should not be confused with food intolerance, which is completely different. In both cases you get symptoms when you eat a certain kind of food even in small quantities.
Food allergy is very rare and therefore it is important if you suspect that you or your children are allergic to a type of food, to have an accurate diagnosis from your doctor or a specialist in allergic diseases. A lot of people avoid eating things to which they mistakenly believe they are allergic.
Why do you become allergic to food?
In order to develop food allergies your immune defence must be predisposed to overreact to foreign proteins in the environment with the specific IgE-antibody. This is called a type 1 allergy. Antibodies are the body's antidotes to alien substances.
When you are exposed to proteins in food, specific IgE may be developed in such great amounts that it will cause an allergic reaction the next time you eat that food. As a rule, you cannot get an allergic reaction the first time you eat a new kind of food, but there are exceptions to any rule.
Examples of food allergens and cross-reacting allergens
* In principle you can be allergic to all kinds of food, but reactions to shellfish, milk, fish, soya beans, wheat, eggs, nuts as well as fruit and vegetables are most common.
* Birch pollen cross-reacts with hazelnut and other nuts, apple, pear, cherry, walnut, almond, plum, kiwi, potato peel, tomato and carrot - this is called 'cross hypersensitivity'.
* Grass cross-reacts with beans and green peas.
What does it feel like to have food allergy?
The allergic reactions vary a lot and may begin either immediately after the consumption of the food or several hours later. Typical symptoms are:
* swollen lips, face or throat.
* a prickly sensation in the mouth and on the lips.
* vomiting, stomach cramp and diarrhoea.
* headache.
* fatigue and irritability.
* hay fever.
* asthma.
* rash, nettle rash and pre-existing infantile eczema may get worse.
* very rarely, anaphylactic shock, which is a circulatory collapse that needs acute treatment with adrenaline.
Symptoms that are mild one day, can be life threatening the next because of the danger of suffocation or anaphylactic shock.
You should never expose yourself to a reaction by eating foods you know you are allergic to, just because you want to avoid putting people to extra trouble or to avoid causing them any embarrassment. If you begin to have difficulty breathing, you need medical treatment right away.
What can you do to avoid food allergy?
* If you are allergic you should look out for the things you are allergic to, and carefully note any cross-reactions.
* Your allergist - a specialist in allergic diseases - can provide guidance on which foods you can or cannot eat.
* Be aware of the symptoms and consult your doctor whenever you are in doubt about something.
How does the doctor make the diagnosis?
The depth of the doctor's examination depends on the severity of the symptoms.
There may be another cause for the symptoms. A lack of ability to digest certain kinds of food may point to coeliac disease or lactose intolerance or non-immunological reactions - histamine in shellfish - and minor poisonings. This is seen among 2 per cent of the population. An inflammatory condition in the intestinal canal (ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease) can also cause the symptoms.
If the symptoms are pronounced and the suspicions of food allergy are well founded, a diagnosis by a specialist in allergic diseases will be necessary. Allergy testing with either a prick-test or a RAST (blood test) may be useful to eliminate allergies, but unfortunately, they often show reactions that have no practical significance. So it is important that all kinds of allergy testing is performed and evaluated by experts.
An allergist will suggest you keep to the following programme. Two weeks on a normal varied diet while keeping a detailed diary of everything that is eaten and any reactions there have been.
If there have been reactions, the food involved should be avoided over the following two weeks while continuing to keep the diary. If the symptoms get considerably better, the next step is an 'open' provocation of your allergy where both you and your doctor know you are eating the food that may be causing your problems.
If the symptoms return, you will be exposed to a number of double-blinded placebo-controlled provocations where neither the allergist nor you know whether you are eating the suspected food or not. This is the usual procedure to obtain a diagnosis of food allergy.
Possible deterioration
* The mucous membranes in your mouth and throat may swell and cause difficulty in breathing.
* Asthma attacks and anaphylactic shock may occur.
* It gets harder and harder to get a proper nutritious diet.
Possible development
Food allergy is a rare disease that primarily affects 3 per cent of all infants. Most of them grow out of their allergy before they reach the age of three. Only 1 per cent of the adult population suffers from food allergy. And most of them are able to live a normal life with only a few restrictions in their diet.
How is food allergy treated?
If a thorough examination identifies the food you are allergic to, the most important treatment is of course, to stop eating it. Medical treatment will not cure the disease but will remedy the symptoms.
Typically, antihistamines will alleviate the itching but they are not likely to have a preventive effect.
In principle you can be allergic to all kinds of food, but reactions to shellfish, milk, fish, soya beans, wheat, eggs, nuts as well as fruit and vegetables are most common.
Food allergy is an allergic reaction - a hypersensitivity reaction, to something that has been eaten. However, it should not be confused with food intolerance, which is completely different. In both cases you get symptoms when you eat a certain kind of food even in small quantities.
Food allergy is very rare and therefore it is important if you suspect that you or your children are allergic to a type of food, to have an accurate diagnosis from your doctor or a specialist in allergic diseases. A lot of people avoid eating things to which they mistakenly believe they are allergic.
Why do you become allergic to food?
In order to develop food allergies your immune defence must be predisposed to overreact to foreign proteins in the environment with the specific IgE-antibody. This is called a type 1 allergy. Antibodies are the body's antidotes to alien substances.
When you are exposed to proteins in food, specific IgE may be developed in such great amounts that it will cause an allergic reaction the next time you eat that food. As a rule, you cannot get an allergic reaction the first time you eat a new kind of food, but there are exceptions to any rule.
Examples of food allergens and cross-reacting allergens
* In principle you can be allergic to all kinds of food, but reactions to shellfish, milk, fish, soya beans, wheat, eggs, nuts as well as fruit and vegetables are most common.
* Birch pollen cross-reacts with hazelnut and other nuts, apple, pear, cherry, walnut, almond, plum, kiwi, potato peel, tomato and carrot - this is called 'cross hypersensitivity'.
* Grass cross-reacts with beans and green peas.
What does it feel like to have food allergy?
The allergic reactions vary a lot and may begin either immediately after the consumption of the food or several hours later. Typical symptoms are:
* swollen lips, face or throat.
* a prickly sensation in the mouth and on the lips.
* vomiting, stomach cramp and diarrhoea.
* headache.
* fatigue and irritability.
* hay fever.
* asthma.
* rash, nettle rash and pre-existing infantile eczema may get worse.
* very rarely, anaphylactic shock, which is a circulatory collapse that needs acute treatment with adrenaline.
Symptoms that are mild one day, can be life threatening the next because of the danger of suffocation or anaphylactic shock.
You should never expose yourself to a reaction by eating foods you know you are allergic to, just because you want to avoid putting people to extra trouble or to avoid causing them any embarrassment. If you begin to have difficulty breathing, you need medical treatment right away.
What can you do to avoid food allergy?
* If you are allergic you should look out for the things you are allergic to, and carefully note any cross-reactions.
* Your allergist - a specialist in allergic diseases - can provide guidance on which foods you can or cannot eat.
* Be aware of the symptoms and consult your doctor whenever you are in doubt about something.
How does the doctor make the diagnosis?
The depth of the doctor's examination depends on the severity of the symptoms.
There may be another cause for the symptoms. A lack of ability to digest certain kinds of food may point to coeliac disease or lactose intolerance or non-immunological reactions - histamine in shellfish - and minor poisonings. This is seen among 2 per cent of the population. An inflammatory condition in the intestinal canal (ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease) can also cause the symptoms.
If the symptoms are pronounced and the suspicions of food allergy are well founded, a diagnosis by a specialist in allergic diseases will be necessary. Allergy testing with either a prick-test or a RAST (blood test) may be useful to eliminate allergies, but unfortunately, they often show reactions that have no practical significance. So it is important that all kinds of allergy testing is performed and evaluated by experts.
An allergist will suggest you keep to the following programme. Two weeks on a normal varied diet while keeping a detailed diary of everything that is eaten and any reactions there have been.
If there have been reactions, the food involved should be avoided over the following two weeks while continuing to keep the diary. If the symptoms get considerably better, the next step is an 'open' provocation of your allergy where both you and your doctor know you are eating the food that may be causing your problems.
If the symptoms return, you will be exposed to a number of double-blinded placebo-controlled provocations where neither the allergist nor you know whether you are eating the suspected food or not. This is the usual procedure to obtain a diagnosis of food allergy.
Possible deterioration
* The mucous membranes in your mouth and throat may swell and cause difficulty in breathing.
* Asthma attacks and anaphylactic shock may occur.
* It gets harder and harder to get a proper nutritious diet.
Possible development
Food allergy is a rare disease that primarily affects 3 per cent of all infants. Most of them grow out of their allergy before they reach the age of three. Only 1 per cent of the adult population suffers from food allergy. And most of them are able to live a normal life with only a few restrictions in their diet.
How is food allergy treated?
If a thorough examination identifies the food you are allergic to, the most important treatment is of course, to stop eating it. Medical treatment will not cure the disease but will remedy the symptoms.
Typically, antihistamines will alleviate the itching but they are not likely to have a preventive effect.
What Is Success?
What Is Success?
by Ralph Waldo Emerson
To laugh often and much;
To win the respect of intelligent people and the affection of children;
To earn the approbation of honest critics and endure the betrayal of false friends;
To appreciate beauty;
To find the best in others;
To give of one's self;
To leave the world a bit better, whether by a healthy child, a garden patch, or a redeemed social condition;
To have played and laughed with enthusiasm and sung with exultation;
To know even one life has breathed easier because you have lived -
This is to have succeeded.
by Ralph Waldo Emerson
To laugh often and much;
To win the respect of intelligent people and the affection of children;
To earn the approbation of honest critics and endure the betrayal of false friends;
To appreciate beauty;
To find the best in others;
To give of one's self;
To leave the world a bit better, whether by a healthy child, a garden patch, or a redeemed social condition;
To have played and laughed with enthusiasm and sung with exultation;
To know even one life has breathed easier because you have lived -
This is to have succeeded.
What Is Arthritis?
What Is Arthritis?
Many people start to feel pain and stiffness in their bodies over time. Sometimes their hands or knees or hips get sore and are hard to move. These people may have arthritis (ar-THRY-tis).
Image of male body.
Any part of your body can become inflamed or painful from arthritis.
Arthritis is an illness that can cause pain and swelling in your joints. Joints are places where two bones meet, such as your elbow or knee. Some kinds of arthritis can cause problems in other organs, such as your eyes, or in your chest. It can affect your skin, too.
These problems may be caused by inflammation (in-flah-MAY-shun), a swelling that can include pain or redness. They are telling you that something is wrong.
Some people may worry that arthritis means they won't be able to work or take care of their children and their family. Others think that you just have to accept things like arthritis.
It's true that arthritis can be painful. But there are things you can do to feel better. This booklet tells you some facts about arthritis and gives you some ideas about what to do, so you can keep doing the things you want to do.
There are several kinds of arthritis. The two most common ones are rheumatoid (ROO-mah-toyd) arthritis and osteoarthritis (AH-stee-oh-ar-THRY-tis).
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis. This is the form that usually comes with age and most often affects the fingers, knees, and hips. Sometimes osteoarthritis follows an injury to a joint. For example, a young man might hurt his knee badly playing football. Then, years after the knee has healed, he might get arthritis in his knee joint.
Father and son play football A sports injury to a knee when a person is young can lead to athritis years later.
Rheumatoid arthritis happens when the body's own defense system doesn't work properly. It affects joints, bones, and organs--often the hands and feet. You may feel sick or tired, and you may have a fever.
Other conditions can also cause arthritis. Some include
* Gout, in which crystals build up in the joints. It usually affects the big toe.
* Lupus (LOOP-us), in which the body's defense system can harm the joints, the heart, the skin, the kidneys, and other organs.
* Viral hepatitis (VY-rul HEP-ah-TY-tis), in which an infection of the liver can cause arthritis.
Lady writing a letter. Rheumatoid arthritis can make it hard to hold a pencil or a brush.
Many people start to feel pain and stiffness in their bodies over time. Sometimes their hands or knees or hips get sore and are hard to move. These people may have arthritis (ar-THRY-tis).
Image of male body.
Any part of your body can become inflamed or painful from arthritis.
Arthritis is an illness that can cause pain and swelling in your joints. Joints are places where two bones meet, such as your elbow or knee. Some kinds of arthritis can cause problems in other organs, such as your eyes, or in your chest. It can affect your skin, too.
These problems may be caused by inflammation (in-flah-MAY-shun), a swelling that can include pain or redness. They are telling you that something is wrong.
Some people may worry that arthritis means they won't be able to work or take care of their children and their family. Others think that you just have to accept things like arthritis.
It's true that arthritis can be painful. But there are things you can do to feel better. This booklet tells you some facts about arthritis and gives you some ideas about what to do, so you can keep doing the things you want to do.
There are several kinds of arthritis. The two most common ones are rheumatoid (ROO-mah-toyd) arthritis and osteoarthritis (AH-stee-oh-ar-THRY-tis).
Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis. This is the form that usually comes with age and most often affects the fingers, knees, and hips. Sometimes osteoarthritis follows an injury to a joint. For example, a young man might hurt his knee badly playing football. Then, years after the knee has healed, he might get arthritis in his knee joint.
Father and son play football A sports injury to a knee when a person is young can lead to athritis years later.
Rheumatoid arthritis happens when the body's own defense system doesn't work properly. It affects joints, bones, and organs--often the hands and feet. You may feel sick or tired, and you may have a fever.
Other conditions can also cause arthritis. Some include
* Gout, in which crystals build up in the joints. It usually affects the big toe.
* Lupus (LOOP-us), in which the body's defense system can harm the joints, the heart, the skin, the kidneys, and other organs.
* Viral hepatitis (VY-rul HEP-ah-TY-tis), in which an infection of the liver can cause arthritis.
Lady writing a letter. Rheumatoid arthritis can make it hard to hold a pencil or a brush.
What is copyright?
What is copyright?
Copyright gives the creators of a wide range of material, such as literature, art, music, sound recordings, films and broadcasts, economic rights enabling them to control use of their material in a number of ways, such as by making copies, issuing copies to the public, performing in public, broadcasting and use on-line. It also gives moral rights to be identified as the creator of certain kinds of material, and to object to distortion or mutilation of it. (Material protected by copyright is termed a "work".)
However, copyright does not protect ideas, or such things as names or titles.
The purpose of copyright is to allow creators to gain economic rewards for their efforts and so encourage future creativity and the development of new material which benefits us all. Copyright material is usually the result of creative skill and/or significant labour and/or investment, and without protection, it would often be very easy for others to exploit material without paying the creator.
Most uses of copyright material therefore require permission from the copyright owner. However there are exceptions to copyright, so that some minor uses may not infringe copyright.
Copyright protection is automatic as soon as there is a record in any form of the material that has been created, and there is no official registration or form or fee. But creators can take certain steps to help prove that material is theirs.
Copyright gives the creators of a wide range of material, such as literature, art, music, sound recordings, films and broadcasts, economic rights enabling them to control use of their material in a number of ways, such as by making copies, issuing copies to the public, performing in public, broadcasting and use on-line. It also gives moral rights to be identified as the creator of certain kinds of material, and to object to distortion or mutilation of it. (Material protected by copyright is termed a "work".)
However, copyright does not protect ideas, or such things as names or titles.
The purpose of copyright is to allow creators to gain economic rewards for their efforts and so encourage future creativity and the development of new material which benefits us all. Copyright material is usually the result of creative skill and/or significant labour and/or investment, and without protection, it would often be very easy for others to exploit material without paying the creator.
Most uses of copyright material therefore require permission from the copyright owner. However there are exceptions to copyright, so that some minor uses may not infringe copyright.
Copyright protection is automatic as soon as there is a record in any form of the material that has been created, and there is no official registration or form or fee. But creators can take certain steps to help prove that material is theirs.
What is breast cancer?
Breast Cancer
There are number of forms of cancers classified on the basis of the affected body organ. In breast cancer the cancer cells destroy the healthy tissues of the breast. Breast Cancer is considered to be main form of the cancer that accounts for major number of women cases in United States in particular and worldwide in general. Early diagnosis and timely treatment will give you better chances of curing breast cancer and help you in leading healthy life. It has been seen that the cases of breast cases have been observed more in the women in the age group of 20 years and above. However, it is a general assessment and should not be taken as a standard at cancer cells may develop at any age. Usually, women between age of 20 and 39 years are advised to undergo breast examination at least once in three years from a specialist physician. Women above the age of 40 years should undergo breast examination on annual basis.
Fortunately, there is a wide growth in breast cancer awareness. Studies conducted during recent pasts have revealed that the rate of breast cancer deaths shows decreasing graph. Fatality due to breast cancer is associated with other factors such as overall health of the patient, age of the patient, growth and spread of the cancer and body immune system.
Breast Cancer – Symptoms
Occurrence of lumps in the breast is the first symptom of the breast cancer. However, it is not necessary that every lump occurring in the breast must be cancerous. There are some non-cancerous lumps that occur during monthly cycles due to hormonal changes. It is important to consult a specialist/your physician if you notice a lump in the breast that does not change with your menstruation or a persistent lump. The main features of cancerous breast lumps are that these lumps are firm, painless and hard to move. Discharge from nipple, change in size or shape of breast (that is not related to your monthly cycle) and color change or change in texture of breast skin are some of the other symptoms of breast cancer.
Development of Breast Cancer
Following are the four stages in which breast cancer develops.
* Stage-I: In this stage tumors of about 2 centimeter size are noticed. There is no involvement of lymph nodes at this stage.
* Stage-II : The tumors in this stage are between 2 centimeters and 5 centimeters in size. It may spread to the lymph nodes of armpit.
* Stage-III : This stage is considered as the initial stage of advanced stage of breast cancer.
* Stage-IIIa : The tumor is more than 5 centimeters size in this stage. Lymph nodes may be attached to other structures or each other at this stage as cancer cells have spread to the lymph nodes, especially the lymph nodes of arm.
* Stage-IIIb : At this stage the tumor spreads to tissues of other adjacent body organs like chest wall, chest muscles and even to ribs. In certain cases the tumor may spread to lymph nodes of chest wall along the breast bone.
* Stage-IV : It is considered to be the advanced stage of breast cancer. At this stage cancer cells spreads to the other body parts like brain, lungs, liver or bones.
Diagnosis of Breast Cancer
Certain tests are conducted to ascertain the occurrence of breast cancer apart from the physical examination. If these tests show positive results then another test called biopsy is conducted. It is a type of minor surgery conducted for obtaining tissue extracts from the affected area. Then the extracted tissues are examined with the help of microscope to confirm whether the lumps are cancerous or not. About 80% of the lumps are non-cancerous. If the lumps are cancerous certain other tests are conducted to determine the line of treatment.
Breast Cancer and Men
Though the occurrence of breast cancer is rare still it can not be ruled out in totality. According the statistics released by American Cancer Society about 1% of total breast cancer cases were men in the year 1995. At times breast cancer in men can be life threatening.
Treatment of Breast Cancer
Like other types of cancers, various factors like general health, age, type of cancer are taken into consideration while selecting right treatment for breast cancer. Apart from these factors patient’s menstruation (whether pre-menopausal or postmenopausal) is also considered while selecting the treatment. Following treatments are normally recommended based on the results of the tests.
* Surgical procedures like lumpectomy (removal of tumor) and mastectomy (complete removal of the affected breast).
* Radiation Therapy: In this therapy cancer cells are killed using X-rays.
* Chemotherapy
* Hormone Therapy: In this therapy certain drugs are administered which can change the function of hormones. In some cases hormone producing organs such as ovaries are removed from the body.
Remember there are no preventive measures for combating occurrence of breast cancer. Early diagnosis and immediate treatment are the only options available to you to prevent further complications of breast cancer.
There are number of forms of cancers classified on the basis of the affected body organ. In breast cancer the cancer cells destroy the healthy tissues of the breast. Breast Cancer is considered to be main form of the cancer that accounts for major number of women cases in United States in particular and worldwide in general. Early diagnosis and timely treatment will give you better chances of curing breast cancer and help you in leading healthy life. It has been seen that the cases of breast cases have been observed more in the women in the age group of 20 years and above. However, it is a general assessment and should not be taken as a standard at cancer cells may develop at any age. Usually, women between age of 20 and 39 years are advised to undergo breast examination at least once in three years from a specialist physician. Women above the age of 40 years should undergo breast examination on annual basis.
Fortunately, there is a wide growth in breast cancer awareness. Studies conducted during recent pasts have revealed that the rate of breast cancer deaths shows decreasing graph. Fatality due to breast cancer is associated with other factors such as overall health of the patient, age of the patient, growth and spread of the cancer and body immune system.
Breast Cancer – Symptoms
Occurrence of lumps in the breast is the first symptom of the breast cancer. However, it is not necessary that every lump occurring in the breast must be cancerous. There are some non-cancerous lumps that occur during monthly cycles due to hormonal changes. It is important to consult a specialist/your physician if you notice a lump in the breast that does not change with your menstruation or a persistent lump. The main features of cancerous breast lumps are that these lumps are firm, painless and hard to move. Discharge from nipple, change in size or shape of breast (that is not related to your monthly cycle) and color change or change in texture of breast skin are some of the other symptoms of breast cancer.
Development of Breast Cancer
Following are the four stages in which breast cancer develops.
* Stage-I: In this stage tumors of about 2 centimeter size are noticed. There is no involvement of lymph nodes at this stage.
* Stage-II : The tumors in this stage are between 2 centimeters and 5 centimeters in size. It may spread to the lymph nodes of armpit.
* Stage-III : This stage is considered as the initial stage of advanced stage of breast cancer.
* Stage-IIIa : The tumor is more than 5 centimeters size in this stage. Lymph nodes may be attached to other structures or each other at this stage as cancer cells have spread to the lymph nodes, especially the lymph nodes of arm.
* Stage-IIIb : At this stage the tumor spreads to tissues of other adjacent body organs like chest wall, chest muscles and even to ribs. In certain cases the tumor may spread to lymph nodes of chest wall along the breast bone.
* Stage-IV : It is considered to be the advanced stage of breast cancer. At this stage cancer cells spreads to the other body parts like brain, lungs, liver or bones.
Diagnosis of Breast Cancer
Certain tests are conducted to ascertain the occurrence of breast cancer apart from the physical examination. If these tests show positive results then another test called biopsy is conducted. It is a type of minor surgery conducted for obtaining tissue extracts from the affected area. Then the extracted tissues are examined with the help of microscope to confirm whether the lumps are cancerous or not. About 80% of the lumps are non-cancerous. If the lumps are cancerous certain other tests are conducted to determine the line of treatment.
Breast Cancer and Men
Though the occurrence of breast cancer is rare still it can not be ruled out in totality. According the statistics released by American Cancer Society about 1% of total breast cancer cases were men in the year 1995. At times breast cancer in men can be life threatening.
Treatment of Breast Cancer
Like other types of cancers, various factors like general health, age, type of cancer are taken into consideration while selecting right treatment for breast cancer. Apart from these factors patient’s menstruation (whether pre-menopausal or postmenopausal) is also considered while selecting the treatment. Following treatments are normally recommended based on the results of the tests.
* Surgical procedures like lumpectomy (removal of tumor) and mastectomy (complete removal of the affected breast).
* Radiation Therapy: In this therapy cancer cells are killed using X-rays.
* Chemotherapy
* Hormone Therapy: In this therapy certain drugs are administered which can change the function of hormones. In some cases hormone producing organs such as ovaries are removed from the body.
Remember there are no preventive measures for combating occurrence of breast cancer. Early diagnosis and immediate treatment are the only options available to you to prevent further complications of breast cancer.
What is Anti-Spam?
There’s a lot of argument as to which “anti-spam” techniques are legitimately so called. In this article, I’d like to consider what constitutes an anti-spam technique in an ideal sense, then consider the various practiced approaches to spam mitigation in that light, drawing conclusions as to how we should frame the “anti-spam” discussion.
Classifying Spam
For the purposes of this discussion, let “spam” refer to “unsolicited bulk email”. Not everyone agrees on this definition, but it’s by far the most widely accepted, and without a working definition we won’t be able to define “anti-spam”. Thus, an email message is spam (for our present purposes) if it meets two criteria [ref: Spamhaus Technical Definition of Spam].
1. Bulk: the recipient’s personal identity and context are irrelevant because the message is equally applicable to many other potential recipients.
2. Unsolicited: the recipient has not verifiably granted deliberate, explicit, and still-revocable permission for it to be sent.
It’s important to note that both these criteria must hold for a message to be spam. Many legitimate and wanted mailing lists are “bulk” in nature, and some personal communications are not explicitly requested but desired nonetheless. Point number two does not have to hold for every single recipient: the message is spam in those instances where both points hold, and not otherwise. It follows that the exact same message can be spam for one person, and not for another.
The criteria are not highly precise. In point number one, the question of personal relevance has disputable edge cases. In point two, there may be a question as to whether a particular message was covered by the terms of the permission. From this latter observation, it follows that simple whitelists or subscriptions aren’t entirely sufficient for expressing bulk mail requests: a recipient may request bulk mail on a particular subject, for example, and justifiably consider messages spam when they stray from that subject. The question as to whether a particular message is on a particular subject also has disputable edge cases.
This lack of precision doesn’t prevent us (as human beings) from determining with some confidence whether an item is spam or not. The impersonal (or incorrectly personal) nature of bulk mail usually makes it obvious when point one holds. We can simply ask the question, “is this message personally relevant to me?” Point two is a judgment easily made from knowledge of what we have and have not requested, although disputed edge cases may require arbitration to resolve.
The criteria don’t reduce to simple, mechanically-detectable conditions, however. Particularly large email providers can get a genuine idea of bulk delivery (which implies condition one) by comparing incoming messages across accounts, although this technique can be hampered by messages salted with random elements. Permission can only be expressed in its most explicit form—a whitelist—and the terms of permission can’t be anything nuanced. Unsolicited messages can be detected at “spamtrap” addresses (which solicit nothing), but we can only surmise that other recipients of the same message did not request it.
Theoretically Ideal Anti-Spam
An ideal anti-spam system rejects messages which are both bulk and unsolicited, letting pass those messages which are of specific personal relevance to the recipient (not “bulk"), and those which the recipient has expressly requested (not “unsolicited"). When phrased in these terms, spam filtering is obviously a task for a well-informed intelligent agent of immense sophistication—quite beyond our current ability to construct. Anything less is a weak approximation at best.
The system described so far is ideal in the sense that it keeps spam out of a recipient’s inbox, but it says nothing of network and computing resources consumed in the process. A system that accepts all mail and then discards the portion which is spam wastes significant resources on mail that will ultimately be discarded. This is the hidden cost of spam, and it can be arbitrarily large, since it depends on how much spam other parties send to the recipient. An ideal system must address this cost: it must not only be perfectly accurate, but also perfectly efficient. In the ideal case, each incoming spam is rejected at no cost to the recipient. Only under these conditions is the system guaranteed to scale under increasing spam load.
To address this, the hypothetical intelligent agent could operate at the sender’s system, preventing unwanted data from entering the network at all. Unfortunately this seems practically untenable for several obvious reasons, not the least of which is the cost of replicating the agent at every prospective sender. But in order for the agent to operate from the recipient’s system without the waste inherent in the “accept then drop” approach, it would need to engage with each potential sender in a very light-weight protocol for determining whether a candidate message is personally relevant or requested, prior to accepting the actual text. I can’t even imagine how a protocol would meet these requirements, let alone be reliable in the face of a hostile sender. The situation seems intractable.
If an ideal anti-spam system is technically possible at all, it’s firmly in the realm of science fiction for now.
Compromise
By sheer necessity then, real “anti-spam” systems are weak approximations of the ideal, and as such they do not have to work by detecting the two key properties of spam: “bulkness” and “unsolicitedness”. Any technique that has approximately the right outcome can be considered. However, if we are going to settle on something less than perfection, we need to make compromises, and not everyone is going to be satisfied with the same set of compromises.
There are those who believe that any measure for stopping spam should have as its first goal, “allow and assist every non-spam message to reach its recipients,” [ref: Verio censored John Gilmore’s email] with the implied corollary that any technique which might block a non-spam message is unacceptable—damnable “censorship”, even. At the other extreme, there are those who believe that the only cure for spam is to banish spammers from the Internet, and that the effective means to this end is to threaten spammer-friendly networks with excommunication—and impose it where necessary, collateral damage notwithstanding.
These are ideological extremes, and never the twain shall meet. It’s important to recognise when an argument about anti-spam has made the transition from being an argument over technique to an argument over ideology. Technique can be discussed in a more or less scientific manner, using metrics like false positives and negatives, cost of computation, network bandwidth consumed, and so on. Ideological differences have no such metrics, and need to be debated separately lest they prevent any kind of agreement being reached anywhere.
Most players lie somewhere in between these ideological extremes. As such, they grudgingly adopt a certain ratio of false positives to negatives as “acceptable”, recognising that too much spam (by way of false negatives) can result in the loss of wanted mail anyhow. Everyone attempts to minimise both counts, but the acceptable ratio between the two will vary according to taste and need.
Some of the actual techniques used will now be considered.
Text Analysis
Text analysis judges whether the message is spam purely on the basis of its content. It depends on spam occupying a sufficiently distinct text-space from non-spam. Unlike a human judgement as to whether a message is “bulk”, this approach does not generally involve any understanding of the message content, just statistical analysis of the text. The accuracy of this method varies widely depending on the algorithm used and the characteristics of the incoming mail. It can be quite effective, but would be a poor choice for an “abuse” address which is supposed to accept spam complaints.
A variation on statistical analysis is the detection of very particular features in the message which are believed to be unique to (or at least strongly characteristic of) spam. This examines specific individual traits, as opposed to detecting an overall pattern characteristic of spam. When spammers become aware of such tests, it is generally easy for them to side-step them, but the approach can be highly effective in the short term, especially in the heat of a virus outbreak.
All methods involving text analysis operate at the recipient’s system after receipt of the message text. As such, they do nothing to address the hidden cost of spam, and any processing effort expended in evaluating the message adds to that hidden cost. Any “bounce” message generated as a result of rejecting the message at this late stage amplifies the cost further, and will probably constitute additional spam if the source address was forged. Filing suspected spam in a separate folder avoids some of the costs (and the possibility of generating more spam), but usually results in delayed and/or less reliable discovery of false positives relative to bouncing the message.
Source Address Blacklisting
Source address blacklisting is an aggressive approach which refuses all mail from sources which have a known bad history of sending spam, a bad reputation for the same, or some other feature which warrants blacklisting as a bad risk. There are also other applications for general lists of IP addresses, but refusing delivery of mail before “DATA” in SMTP is the application I wish to discuss here. Many sites maintain private lists of addresses which are no longer welcome, but the better known (and more controversial) instances of blacklisting involve publication in the domain name system.
The accuracy of the approach depends entirely on the portion of spam in the email emitted by the blacklisted site. If a site emits nothing but spam, then the technique is perfect, but this is rarely the case. Unlike most anti-spam techniques, blacklisting reduces the hidden cost of spam by preventing transmission of the message. False positives (and true positives, for that matter) are brought to the attention of the sender as non-delivery notices if the sender’s systems are standards compliant. As all mail is refused, there can be no such thing as a false negative.
But to view blacklisting as a purely technical anti-spam strategy is to miss an important point: the potential social impact of public blacklists. Public blacklists do not have any effect in and of themselves: they are merely published lists of addresses. It is how people use these addresses which generates the impact. If a blacklist publishes the addresses of networks that do not meet certain standards of behaviour, and many people use this blacklist to selectively permit incoming mail, most network operators will be faced with a choice: conform to the standards, or suffer reduced email connectivity. Thus, blacklists are a means of applying peer pressure between independently operated networks.
The full impact of source address blacklisting as an anti-spam technique can only be appreciated in this light. The social pressure it brings to bear encourages many major players to keep their acts clean, and all mail recipients therefore enjoy some benefits of blacklisting whether they use it or not. Without it, many networks might welcome spammers as high-use customers; as it stands, many email service providers are good actors, taking reasonable measures to ensure that their networks are not spam sources, and the threat of blacklisting is what motivates most of them to expend this effort.
Other Techniques
Whitelisting is effective as an anti-spam technique, but it is overkill. It eliminates all sources which are not pre-approved, and so long as all the approved sources can be trusted to operate within the bounds of acceptable behaviour, it eliminates spam. It also eliminates any possibility of using the email address in question as a means of introduction. In the absence of a sender identification system, there exists the possibility that a spammer can circumvent a whitelist by forging a whitelisted address, but the spammer would have to obtain information about individual whitelists in order to exploit this loophole. Whitelists can be implemented such that they address the hidden cost of spam, given certain constraints on design.
Greylisting eliminates those senders which attempt delivery in a “hit and run” manner, not reattempting delivery in accordance with standards. This has nothing to do with the characteristics of spam in a direct sense, but it so happens that many spammers use “ratware” delivery systems which are egregiously non-compliant with regards to standards, and this technique efficiently prevents communication of messages from such systems. It also introduces a delay in which other data (such as blacklist entries) may become available, and this is the only long-term benefit of the approach if spammers fix up their standards compliance. It can also cause legitimate mail to be delayed, of course. Delaying (or preventing) delivery in this manner is relatively light on resource usage.
Sender identification systems such as SPF, DKIM, and many others attempt to create a verifiable association between an email and some domain name. Once again, this has nothing to do with the direct characteristics of spam, and the presence of a verifiable sender identity says nothing about whether the message is spam or not. Even so, a certified sender identity offers one more datum on which to blacklist or whitelist messages, and can mitigate some of the problems associated with other activities. Known identities can, in this manner, be given specific treatment without risk of misapplication. For example, known good actors can be exempted from filtering without risk of admitting bad actors with false identity. Spammers frequently make false identity claims, but they can stop lying (and keep spamming) if so obliged.
Challenge/response, in its broadest sense, attempts to determine that some source address of the message is monitored by a human being capable of taking some requested action. This effectively precludes the possibility that the message is sent in bulk, in most cases. There usually exists the possibility that the challenge message itself will constitute spam, since the address to which the challenge is sent may be a third party who has not expressly requested the challenge, and challenges qualify as “bulk” under our definition—and can be sent in arbitrarily large quantities to boot. The transmission of this extra data generally means that such systems increase the hidden cost of spam. They also create extra work for the recipient of the challenge as a matter of course, whether that challenge constitutes spam or not.
Conclusion
It seems that an ideal anti-spam system is a practical impossibility, given our working definition of “spam”. Every practical approach we have to the problem attacks it obliquely, rather than directly. I would therefore encourage a liberal view of what counts as an “anti-spam” system. It is shallow criticism to say of a certain approach that “it is not an anti-spam system” when all this means is, “it has no immediate impact on the state of my inbox”. The state of individual inboxes is merely the most obvious part of the problem.
Indeed, rather than frame the discussion as “anti-spam”, I suggest we consider the broader picture of “email systems and their properties, particularly in relation to hostile or abusive participants”. In this light, for example, sender identification systems can be seen as a means to prevent senders from making false identity claims, whereas they are seen as largely irrelevant when the discussion is “anti-spam”. A system capable of sender identification has clear benefits over one that does not. Should we ignore these benefits simply because they don’t relate directly to spam prevention?
Spam is a symptom—a symptom of a sick society, ultimately—and email systems can mitigate or exacerbate the symptoms, depending on their properties, but never fix the root cause. Thus, in the end, all we can ask of an email system is that it mitigate the harm caused by spammers and other miscreants as much as possible. In considering any approach to email, we ought to judge it on its own particular benefits and costs in this regard. The benefits aren’t limited to “a cleaner inbox”: they may consist in generally reduced costs to recipients, the ability to offer preferential treatment to good actors, the social clout to ostracise spammers, and so on.
Let’s learn to appreciate the hidden costs and benefits of these techniques, and to think outside the inbox.
Classifying Spam
For the purposes of this discussion, let “spam” refer to “unsolicited bulk email”. Not everyone agrees on this definition, but it’s by far the most widely accepted, and without a working definition we won’t be able to define “anti-spam”. Thus, an email message is spam (for our present purposes) if it meets two criteria [ref: Spamhaus Technical Definition of Spam].
1. Bulk: the recipient’s personal identity and context are irrelevant because the message is equally applicable to many other potential recipients.
2. Unsolicited: the recipient has not verifiably granted deliberate, explicit, and still-revocable permission for it to be sent.
It’s important to note that both these criteria must hold for a message to be spam. Many legitimate and wanted mailing lists are “bulk” in nature, and some personal communications are not explicitly requested but desired nonetheless. Point number two does not have to hold for every single recipient: the message is spam in those instances where both points hold, and not otherwise. It follows that the exact same message can be spam for one person, and not for another.
The criteria are not highly precise. In point number one, the question of personal relevance has disputable edge cases. In point two, there may be a question as to whether a particular message was covered by the terms of the permission. From this latter observation, it follows that simple whitelists or subscriptions aren’t entirely sufficient for expressing bulk mail requests: a recipient may request bulk mail on a particular subject, for example, and justifiably consider messages spam when they stray from that subject. The question as to whether a particular message is on a particular subject also has disputable edge cases.
This lack of precision doesn’t prevent us (as human beings) from determining with some confidence whether an item is spam or not. The impersonal (or incorrectly personal) nature of bulk mail usually makes it obvious when point one holds. We can simply ask the question, “is this message personally relevant to me?” Point two is a judgment easily made from knowledge of what we have and have not requested, although disputed edge cases may require arbitration to resolve.
The criteria don’t reduce to simple, mechanically-detectable conditions, however. Particularly large email providers can get a genuine idea of bulk delivery (which implies condition one) by comparing incoming messages across accounts, although this technique can be hampered by messages salted with random elements. Permission can only be expressed in its most explicit form—a whitelist—and the terms of permission can’t be anything nuanced. Unsolicited messages can be detected at “spamtrap” addresses (which solicit nothing), but we can only surmise that other recipients of the same message did not request it.
Theoretically Ideal Anti-Spam
An ideal anti-spam system rejects messages which are both bulk and unsolicited, letting pass those messages which are of specific personal relevance to the recipient (not “bulk"), and those which the recipient has expressly requested (not “unsolicited"). When phrased in these terms, spam filtering is obviously a task for a well-informed intelligent agent of immense sophistication—quite beyond our current ability to construct. Anything less is a weak approximation at best.
The system described so far is ideal in the sense that it keeps spam out of a recipient’s inbox, but it says nothing of network and computing resources consumed in the process. A system that accepts all mail and then discards the portion which is spam wastes significant resources on mail that will ultimately be discarded. This is the hidden cost of spam, and it can be arbitrarily large, since it depends on how much spam other parties send to the recipient. An ideal system must address this cost: it must not only be perfectly accurate, but also perfectly efficient. In the ideal case, each incoming spam is rejected at no cost to the recipient. Only under these conditions is the system guaranteed to scale under increasing spam load.
To address this, the hypothetical intelligent agent could operate at the sender’s system, preventing unwanted data from entering the network at all. Unfortunately this seems practically untenable for several obvious reasons, not the least of which is the cost of replicating the agent at every prospective sender. But in order for the agent to operate from the recipient’s system without the waste inherent in the “accept then drop” approach, it would need to engage with each potential sender in a very light-weight protocol for determining whether a candidate message is personally relevant or requested, prior to accepting the actual text. I can’t even imagine how a protocol would meet these requirements, let alone be reliable in the face of a hostile sender. The situation seems intractable.
If an ideal anti-spam system is technically possible at all, it’s firmly in the realm of science fiction for now.
Compromise
By sheer necessity then, real “anti-spam” systems are weak approximations of the ideal, and as such they do not have to work by detecting the two key properties of spam: “bulkness” and “unsolicitedness”. Any technique that has approximately the right outcome can be considered. However, if we are going to settle on something less than perfection, we need to make compromises, and not everyone is going to be satisfied with the same set of compromises.
There are those who believe that any measure for stopping spam should have as its first goal, “allow and assist every non-spam message to reach its recipients,” [ref: Verio censored John Gilmore’s email] with the implied corollary that any technique which might block a non-spam message is unacceptable—damnable “censorship”, even. At the other extreme, there are those who believe that the only cure for spam is to banish spammers from the Internet, and that the effective means to this end is to threaten spammer-friendly networks with excommunication—and impose it where necessary, collateral damage notwithstanding.
These are ideological extremes, and never the twain shall meet. It’s important to recognise when an argument about anti-spam has made the transition from being an argument over technique to an argument over ideology. Technique can be discussed in a more or less scientific manner, using metrics like false positives and negatives, cost of computation, network bandwidth consumed, and so on. Ideological differences have no such metrics, and need to be debated separately lest they prevent any kind of agreement being reached anywhere.
Most players lie somewhere in between these ideological extremes. As such, they grudgingly adopt a certain ratio of false positives to negatives as “acceptable”, recognising that too much spam (by way of false negatives) can result in the loss of wanted mail anyhow. Everyone attempts to minimise both counts, but the acceptable ratio between the two will vary according to taste and need.
Some of the actual techniques used will now be considered.
Text Analysis
Text analysis judges whether the message is spam purely on the basis of its content. It depends on spam occupying a sufficiently distinct text-space from non-spam. Unlike a human judgement as to whether a message is “bulk”, this approach does not generally involve any understanding of the message content, just statistical analysis of the text. The accuracy of this method varies widely depending on the algorithm used and the characteristics of the incoming mail. It can be quite effective, but would be a poor choice for an “abuse” address which is supposed to accept spam complaints.
A variation on statistical analysis is the detection of very particular features in the message which are believed to be unique to (or at least strongly characteristic of) spam. This examines specific individual traits, as opposed to detecting an overall pattern characteristic of spam. When spammers become aware of such tests, it is generally easy for them to side-step them, but the approach can be highly effective in the short term, especially in the heat of a virus outbreak.
All methods involving text analysis operate at the recipient’s system after receipt of the message text. As such, they do nothing to address the hidden cost of spam, and any processing effort expended in evaluating the message adds to that hidden cost. Any “bounce” message generated as a result of rejecting the message at this late stage amplifies the cost further, and will probably constitute additional spam if the source address was forged. Filing suspected spam in a separate folder avoids some of the costs (and the possibility of generating more spam), but usually results in delayed and/or less reliable discovery of false positives relative to bouncing the message.
Source Address Blacklisting
Source address blacklisting is an aggressive approach which refuses all mail from sources which have a known bad history of sending spam, a bad reputation for the same, or some other feature which warrants blacklisting as a bad risk. There are also other applications for general lists of IP addresses, but refusing delivery of mail before “DATA” in SMTP is the application I wish to discuss here. Many sites maintain private lists of addresses which are no longer welcome, but the better known (and more controversial) instances of blacklisting involve publication in the domain name system.
The accuracy of the approach depends entirely on the portion of spam in the email emitted by the blacklisted site. If a site emits nothing but spam, then the technique is perfect, but this is rarely the case. Unlike most anti-spam techniques, blacklisting reduces the hidden cost of spam by preventing transmission of the message. False positives (and true positives, for that matter) are brought to the attention of the sender as non-delivery notices if the sender’s systems are standards compliant. As all mail is refused, there can be no such thing as a false negative.
But to view blacklisting as a purely technical anti-spam strategy is to miss an important point: the potential social impact of public blacklists. Public blacklists do not have any effect in and of themselves: they are merely published lists of addresses. It is how people use these addresses which generates the impact. If a blacklist publishes the addresses of networks that do not meet certain standards of behaviour, and many people use this blacklist to selectively permit incoming mail, most network operators will be faced with a choice: conform to the standards, or suffer reduced email connectivity. Thus, blacklists are a means of applying peer pressure between independently operated networks.
The full impact of source address blacklisting as an anti-spam technique can only be appreciated in this light. The social pressure it brings to bear encourages many major players to keep their acts clean, and all mail recipients therefore enjoy some benefits of blacklisting whether they use it or not. Without it, many networks might welcome spammers as high-use customers; as it stands, many email service providers are good actors, taking reasonable measures to ensure that their networks are not spam sources, and the threat of blacklisting is what motivates most of them to expend this effort.
Other Techniques
Whitelisting is effective as an anti-spam technique, but it is overkill. It eliminates all sources which are not pre-approved, and so long as all the approved sources can be trusted to operate within the bounds of acceptable behaviour, it eliminates spam. It also eliminates any possibility of using the email address in question as a means of introduction. In the absence of a sender identification system, there exists the possibility that a spammer can circumvent a whitelist by forging a whitelisted address, but the spammer would have to obtain information about individual whitelists in order to exploit this loophole. Whitelists can be implemented such that they address the hidden cost of spam, given certain constraints on design.
Greylisting eliminates those senders which attempt delivery in a “hit and run” manner, not reattempting delivery in accordance with standards. This has nothing to do with the characteristics of spam in a direct sense, but it so happens that many spammers use “ratware” delivery systems which are egregiously non-compliant with regards to standards, and this technique efficiently prevents communication of messages from such systems. It also introduces a delay in which other data (such as blacklist entries) may become available, and this is the only long-term benefit of the approach if spammers fix up their standards compliance. It can also cause legitimate mail to be delayed, of course. Delaying (or preventing) delivery in this manner is relatively light on resource usage.
Sender identification systems such as SPF, DKIM, and many others attempt to create a verifiable association between an email and some domain name. Once again, this has nothing to do with the direct characteristics of spam, and the presence of a verifiable sender identity says nothing about whether the message is spam or not. Even so, a certified sender identity offers one more datum on which to blacklist or whitelist messages, and can mitigate some of the problems associated with other activities. Known identities can, in this manner, be given specific treatment without risk of misapplication. For example, known good actors can be exempted from filtering without risk of admitting bad actors with false identity. Spammers frequently make false identity claims, but they can stop lying (and keep spamming) if so obliged.
Challenge/response, in its broadest sense, attempts to determine that some source address of the message is monitored by a human being capable of taking some requested action. This effectively precludes the possibility that the message is sent in bulk, in most cases. There usually exists the possibility that the challenge message itself will constitute spam, since the address to which the challenge is sent may be a third party who has not expressly requested the challenge, and challenges qualify as “bulk” under our definition—and can be sent in arbitrarily large quantities to boot. The transmission of this extra data generally means that such systems increase the hidden cost of spam. They also create extra work for the recipient of the challenge as a matter of course, whether that challenge constitutes spam or not.
Conclusion
It seems that an ideal anti-spam system is a practical impossibility, given our working definition of “spam”. Every practical approach we have to the problem attacks it obliquely, rather than directly. I would therefore encourage a liberal view of what counts as an “anti-spam” system. It is shallow criticism to say of a certain approach that “it is not an anti-spam system” when all this means is, “it has no immediate impact on the state of my inbox”. The state of individual inboxes is merely the most obvious part of the problem.
Indeed, rather than frame the discussion as “anti-spam”, I suggest we consider the broader picture of “email systems and their properties, particularly in relation to hostile or abusive participants”. In this light, for example, sender identification systems can be seen as a means to prevent senders from making false identity claims, whereas they are seen as largely irrelevant when the discussion is “anti-spam”. A system capable of sender identification has clear benefits over one that does not. Should we ignore these benefits simply because they don’t relate directly to spam prevention?
Spam is a symptom—a symptom of a sick society, ultimately—and email systems can mitigate or exacerbate the symptoms, depending on their properties, but never fix the root cause. Thus, in the end, all we can ask of an email system is that it mitigate the harm caused by spammers and other miscreants as much as possible. In considering any approach to email, we ought to judge it on its own particular benefits and costs in this regard. The benefits aren’t limited to “a cleaner inbox”: they may consist in generally reduced costs to recipients, the ability to offer preferential treatment to good actors, the social clout to ostracise spammers, and so on.
Let’s learn to appreciate the hidden costs and benefits of these techniques, and to think outside the inbox.
What is Antique Brass?
Antique brass is a term used to describe a finish which may appear on any metal item, most often a decorative household item. Brass is actually an alloy, or combination, of metals. Solid brass is 67% copper and 33% zinc. The natural finish of polished brass is shiny. To the contrary, an antique brass finish appears worn with time, is darker than natural brass, and absorbs more light than it reflects.
Antique brass finish is most often applied to new products to make them appear aged. It is a popular finish for door hardware, lamps, and light fixtures, because many homeowners prefer antique brass to polished brass in their décor, especially if they are trying to avoid a modern look.
An item does not have to be made of solid brass for it to have the look of antique brass. In fact, many newly manufactured items with antique brass finishes are not made of solid brass. Similarly, there are many specialty paints on the market that can be used to achieve a faux antique brass finish on nearly any metal item. A homeowner can easily give a light fixture or door hardware the look of antique brass with a spray-on specialty paint. It is not recommended that faux-finish paint be used on an item that is handled frequently or exposed to water.
One of the best things about antique brass from a decorating prospective is that is much easier to mix and match items with other finishes and styles. Carefully chosen antique brass pieces will blend in with a room of almost any style or color scheme. Consumers can purchase new items such as kitchen and bathroom faucets, cabinet hinges and door hardware, light fixtures, lamp bases, candle holders, picture frames, and more in antique brass finishes. This makes it easy to coordinate a room or match an heirloom that truly is an antique brass item.
Antique brass finish is most often applied to new products to make them appear aged. It is a popular finish for door hardware, lamps, and light fixtures, because many homeowners prefer antique brass to polished brass in their décor, especially if they are trying to avoid a modern look.
An item does not have to be made of solid brass for it to have the look of antique brass. In fact, many newly manufactured items with antique brass finishes are not made of solid brass. Similarly, there are many specialty paints on the market that can be used to achieve a faux antique brass finish on nearly any metal item. A homeowner can easily give a light fixture or door hardware the look of antique brass with a spray-on specialty paint. It is not recommended that faux-finish paint be used on an item that is handled frequently or exposed to water.
One of the best things about antique brass from a decorating prospective is that is much easier to mix and match items with other finishes and styles. Carefully chosen antique brass pieces will blend in with a room of almost any style or color scheme. Consumers can purchase new items such as kitchen and bathroom faucets, cabinet hinges and door hardware, light fixtures, lamp bases, candle holders, picture frames, and more in antique brass finishes. This makes it easy to coordinate a room or match an heirloom that truly is an antique brass item.
What is Antipasti?
Antipasti is an Italian word meaning literally “before the pasta.” Since pasta is traditionally the first main course served in Italian cooking, the antipasti is the appetizer or hors d’oeuvre course. Antipasti is the feminine form of the word, but the masculine form, antipasto, is often also used.
The antipasti may consist of a number of different foods, depending on the meal and the circumstances. In a general sense, it could be almost anything served as an appetizer, even fare outside of traditional Italian cuisine, such as potstickers or deviled eggs. More often, however, antipasti refers to a number of traditional Italian appetizers, which can be categorized into four different groups: meats, olives, vegetables, and cheeses.
Meats served as antipasti are usually served cold, and may be cold cuts, sausages, or cured meats. Turkey and ham are two examples of cold cuts served as antipasti. Pepperoni or salami may also be served sliced into thin pieces as antipasti. A number of cured meats may also be served, most especially the dry-cured Italian ham known as prosciutto. While these meats are usually served in thin slices, they may also be served in larger pieces, or in the case of salami or pepperoni, still in their casings.
Olives are a staple of Italian cuisine, and so are nearly always found in a traditional antipasti that is not exclusively meat. Kalamata, Nicoise, and Colossole olives are the most common types found in antipasti. These olives may be served on their own, or stuffed with different cheeses, garlic, nuts, prosciutto, or hot peppers.
Vegetables served as antipasti are usually served raw, or perhaps marinated. While any vegetable can in theory be dished up as antipasti, and sometimes one encounters carrots or broccoli, it is more common to find vegetables such as mushrooms, artichokes, or sun-dried tomatoes as the antipasti fare. Often, a number of different types of mushrooms are served together, perhaps each prepared differently; some might be marinated and served cold, others marinated and served hot, and still others grilled before marinating. This allows the diner to experience one food in a number of different styles.
Cheeses are also an important part of the antipasti. Usually, traditional Italian cheeses are served, although in some cases, more exotic cheeses may also be included. The cheeses may be dished on their own, or wrapped in cured meats or stuffed into olives or mushrooms. Although antipasti is not necessarily accompanied by bread, if it includes spreadable cheeses, it will most likely be served with something to spread them on.
Usually, antipasti is served simply as a dish of assorted meats, cheeses, olives, and vegetables, but the term may also be affixed to another type of food to indicate that the antipasti accompanies it. The most common example of this use of the term is antipasti salad, which is usually a green salad covered in various cheeses, olives, cold cuts, and other assorted meats.
The antipasti may consist of a number of different foods, depending on the meal and the circumstances. In a general sense, it could be almost anything served as an appetizer, even fare outside of traditional Italian cuisine, such as potstickers or deviled eggs. More often, however, antipasti refers to a number of traditional Italian appetizers, which can be categorized into four different groups: meats, olives, vegetables, and cheeses.
Meats served as antipasti are usually served cold, and may be cold cuts, sausages, or cured meats. Turkey and ham are two examples of cold cuts served as antipasti. Pepperoni or salami may also be served sliced into thin pieces as antipasti. A number of cured meats may also be served, most especially the dry-cured Italian ham known as prosciutto. While these meats are usually served in thin slices, they may also be served in larger pieces, or in the case of salami or pepperoni, still in their casings.
Olives are a staple of Italian cuisine, and so are nearly always found in a traditional antipasti that is not exclusively meat. Kalamata, Nicoise, and Colossole olives are the most common types found in antipasti. These olives may be served on their own, or stuffed with different cheeses, garlic, nuts, prosciutto, or hot peppers.
Vegetables served as antipasti are usually served raw, or perhaps marinated. While any vegetable can in theory be dished up as antipasti, and sometimes one encounters carrots or broccoli, it is more common to find vegetables such as mushrooms, artichokes, or sun-dried tomatoes as the antipasti fare. Often, a number of different types of mushrooms are served together, perhaps each prepared differently; some might be marinated and served cold, others marinated and served hot, and still others grilled before marinating. This allows the diner to experience one food in a number of different styles.
Cheeses are also an important part of the antipasti. Usually, traditional Italian cheeses are served, although in some cases, more exotic cheeses may also be included. The cheeses may be dished on their own, or wrapped in cured meats or stuffed into olives or mushrooms. Although antipasti is not necessarily accompanied by bread, if it includes spreadable cheeses, it will most likely be served with something to spread them on.
Usually, antipasti is served simply as a dish of assorted meats, cheeses, olives, and vegetables, but the term may also be affixed to another type of food to indicate that the antipasti accompanies it. The most common example of this use of the term is antipasti salad, which is usually a green salad covered in various cheeses, olives, cold cuts, and other assorted meats.
What are anti-inflammatory painkillers?
What are anti-inflammatory painkillers?
Anti-inflammatory painkillers are sometimes called non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or just 'anti-inflammatories'. There are over 20 types. They include: aceclofenac, acemetacin, aspirin (see also below), celecoxib, dexibuprofen, dexketoprofen, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, etoricoxib, fenbrufen, fenoprofen, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen, indomethacin, lumiracoxib, ketoprofen, mefanamic acid, meloxicam, nabumetone, naproxen, piroxicam, sulindac, tenoxicam, and tiaprofenic acid. Each of these also come as different brand names.
Anti-inflammatories are used to ease pain in various conditions including: arthritis (various types), muscle and ligament pains (strains and sprains), period pain, pains after operations, headaches, migraines, and some other types of pain. You need a prescription to get anti-inflammatories, apart from ibuprofen and aspirin which you can also buy from pharmacies.
Ibuprofen and aspirin are also used to bring down a high temperature. Low dose aspirin is also used to help prevent blood clots that can cause a heart attack or stroke. (See separate leaflet called 'Aspirin to Prevent Blood Clots'.)
How do anti-inflammatory painkillers work?
They work mainly by reducing the amount of prostaglandins that are made. Prostaglandins are chemicals that are released by cells at sites of injury. Prostaglandins are involved in causing inflammation and swelling. They also sensitise nerve endings which can cause pain. Anti-inflammatories stop certain enzymes (chemicals) from working that are needed to make prostaglandins. Therefore, as you make less prostaglandins, you have less inflammation and pain.
How effective are anti-inflammatory painkillers?
After a single dose, they work at least as well as paracetamol to ease pain, and they may even be better. With repeated doses, they also reduce inflammation. This may further reduce pain and stiffness that occurs with inflammatory conditions such as arthritis and muscle sprains. So, you might not notice the maximum effect for up to 1-3 weeks after starting a course of tablets.
Some general points about taking anti-inflammatory painkillers
It is often worth trying paracetamol before taking an anti-inflammatory. Paracetamol is a good painkiller, and is less likely to cause side-effects. Although paracetamol does not reduce inflammation, it is often the preferred painkiller for muscle and joint conditions that cause pain but have little inflammation. For example, osteoarthritis.
Anti-inflammatories do not alter the course of painful conditions such as arthritis. They just ease symptoms of pain and stiffness. However, this may provide further benefit because, if pain is eased, you may then be able to move around more easily or use a painful joint more easily. The inflammation and pain of various types of arthritis often 'comes and goes'. During good spells, when symptoms are not too bad, you may not need to take anti-inflammatories.
The different types of anti-inflammatories have pros and cons which is why different people take different ones. For example:
* Some are less likely to cause side-effects, but may not be as strong as others.
* Some need to be taken more often each day than others.
Some people find that one preparation works better than another for them. If one preparation does not work very well at first, then a different one may work better. It is not unusual to try two or more preparations before finding one that suits you best. Your doctor can advise.
What are the possible side-effects and risks?
Most people who take anti-inflammatories have no side-effects, or only minor ones. Read the leaflet that comes with the tablets for a full list of cautions and possible side-effects. One important caution is that, ideally, you should not take anti-inflammatories if you are pregnant. The following highlight some of the more important side-effects to be aware of.
Bleeding into the stomach and gut
Anti-inflammatories sometimes cause the lining of the stomach to bleed. Sometimes a stomach ulcer develops. Sometimes bleeding is severe, and even life-threatening. Elderly people are more prone to this problem, but it can occur in anybody. Therefore, if you are taking an anti-inflammatory and you develop upper abdominal pains, pass blood or black stools, or vomit blood, then stop taking the tablets and see a doctor as soon as possible, or go to a casualty department.
The risk of bleeding into the stomach is increased if you are taking an anti-inflammatory plus warfarin, steroids, or low-dose aspirin (used by many people to help prevent a heart attack or stroke). These combinations of drugs should only be used if absolutely necessary.
Some people need an anti-inflammatory to ease pain, and yet are at increased risk of stomach bleeding. For example, people over 65, or those with a past history of a stomach or duodenal ulcer. In such cases another drug may also be prescribed to protect the lining of the stomach from the effects of the anti-inflammatory. This usually prevents bleeding and ulcers from developing if you take an anti-inflammatory. Another option sometimes considered is to take an anti-inflammatory that some studies suggest may possibly have a lower risk of causing stomach bleeding. These type of anti-inflammatories are called selective cox-2 inhibitors and include celecoxib, etoricoxib, and lumiracoxib. However, you should not take a selective cox-2 inhibitor if you have ischaemic heart disease (angina, heart attack, heart failure, etc) or cerebrovascular disease (stroke).
If you have asthma, high blood pressure, heart failure or kidney failure
In some people with asthma, symptoms such as wheeze or breathlessness are made worse by anti-inflammatories. Seek medical help if your asthma suddenly becomes worse after taking an anti-inflammatory. Also, anti-inflammatories can sometimes make high blood pressure, heart failure, or kidney failure worse. If you have any of these conditions, you may be more closely monitored if you are prescribed an anti-inflammatory.
Some other side-effects that sometimes occur include:
Nausea (feeling sick), diarrhoea, rashes, headache, dizziness, nervousness, depression, drowsiness, insomnia (poor sleep), vertigo (dizziness), and tinnitus (noises in the ear). If one or more of these occur they will usually ease off if you stop taking the tablets. There are also a number of other uncommon side-effects - see the leaflet in the tablet packet for details.
Anti-inflammatory painkillers are sometimes called non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or just 'anti-inflammatories'. There are over 20 types. They include: aceclofenac, acemetacin, aspirin (see also below), celecoxib, dexibuprofen, dexketoprofen, diclofenac, diflunisal, etodolac, etoricoxib, fenbrufen, fenoprofen, flurbiprofen, ibuprofen, indomethacin, lumiracoxib, ketoprofen, mefanamic acid, meloxicam, nabumetone, naproxen, piroxicam, sulindac, tenoxicam, and tiaprofenic acid. Each of these also come as different brand names.
Anti-inflammatories are used to ease pain in various conditions including: arthritis (various types), muscle and ligament pains (strains and sprains), period pain, pains after operations, headaches, migraines, and some other types of pain. You need a prescription to get anti-inflammatories, apart from ibuprofen and aspirin which you can also buy from pharmacies.
Ibuprofen and aspirin are also used to bring down a high temperature. Low dose aspirin is also used to help prevent blood clots that can cause a heart attack or stroke. (See separate leaflet called 'Aspirin to Prevent Blood Clots'.)
How do anti-inflammatory painkillers work?
They work mainly by reducing the amount of prostaglandins that are made. Prostaglandins are chemicals that are released by cells at sites of injury. Prostaglandins are involved in causing inflammation and swelling. They also sensitise nerve endings which can cause pain. Anti-inflammatories stop certain enzymes (chemicals) from working that are needed to make prostaglandins. Therefore, as you make less prostaglandins, you have less inflammation and pain.
How effective are anti-inflammatory painkillers?
After a single dose, they work at least as well as paracetamol to ease pain, and they may even be better. With repeated doses, they also reduce inflammation. This may further reduce pain and stiffness that occurs with inflammatory conditions such as arthritis and muscle sprains. So, you might not notice the maximum effect for up to 1-3 weeks after starting a course of tablets.
Some general points about taking anti-inflammatory painkillers
It is often worth trying paracetamol before taking an anti-inflammatory. Paracetamol is a good painkiller, and is less likely to cause side-effects. Although paracetamol does not reduce inflammation, it is often the preferred painkiller for muscle and joint conditions that cause pain but have little inflammation. For example, osteoarthritis.
Anti-inflammatories do not alter the course of painful conditions such as arthritis. They just ease symptoms of pain and stiffness. However, this may provide further benefit because, if pain is eased, you may then be able to move around more easily or use a painful joint more easily. The inflammation and pain of various types of arthritis often 'comes and goes'. During good spells, when symptoms are not too bad, you may not need to take anti-inflammatories.
The different types of anti-inflammatories have pros and cons which is why different people take different ones. For example:
* Some are less likely to cause side-effects, but may not be as strong as others.
* Some need to be taken more often each day than others.
Some people find that one preparation works better than another for them. If one preparation does not work very well at first, then a different one may work better. It is not unusual to try two or more preparations before finding one that suits you best. Your doctor can advise.
What are the possible side-effects and risks?
Most people who take anti-inflammatories have no side-effects, or only minor ones. Read the leaflet that comes with the tablets for a full list of cautions and possible side-effects. One important caution is that, ideally, you should not take anti-inflammatories if you are pregnant. The following highlight some of the more important side-effects to be aware of.
Bleeding into the stomach and gut
Anti-inflammatories sometimes cause the lining of the stomach to bleed. Sometimes a stomach ulcer develops. Sometimes bleeding is severe, and even life-threatening. Elderly people are more prone to this problem, but it can occur in anybody. Therefore, if you are taking an anti-inflammatory and you develop upper abdominal pains, pass blood or black stools, or vomit blood, then stop taking the tablets and see a doctor as soon as possible, or go to a casualty department.
The risk of bleeding into the stomach is increased if you are taking an anti-inflammatory plus warfarin, steroids, or low-dose aspirin (used by many people to help prevent a heart attack or stroke). These combinations of drugs should only be used if absolutely necessary.
Some people need an anti-inflammatory to ease pain, and yet are at increased risk of stomach bleeding. For example, people over 65, or those with a past history of a stomach or duodenal ulcer. In such cases another drug may also be prescribed to protect the lining of the stomach from the effects of the anti-inflammatory. This usually prevents bleeding and ulcers from developing if you take an anti-inflammatory. Another option sometimes considered is to take an anti-inflammatory that some studies suggest may possibly have a lower risk of causing stomach bleeding. These type of anti-inflammatories are called selective cox-2 inhibitors and include celecoxib, etoricoxib, and lumiracoxib. However, you should not take a selective cox-2 inhibitor if you have ischaemic heart disease (angina, heart attack, heart failure, etc) or cerebrovascular disease (stroke).
If you have asthma, high blood pressure, heart failure or kidney failure
In some people with asthma, symptoms such as wheeze or breathlessness are made worse by anti-inflammatories. Seek medical help if your asthma suddenly becomes worse after taking an anti-inflammatory. Also, anti-inflammatories can sometimes make high blood pressure, heart failure, or kidney failure worse. If you have any of these conditions, you may be more closely monitored if you are prescribed an anti-inflammatory.
Some other side-effects that sometimes occur include:
Nausea (feeling sick), diarrhoea, rashes, headache, dizziness, nervousness, depression, drowsiness, insomnia (poor sleep), vertigo (dizziness), and tinnitus (noises in the ear). If one or more of these occur they will usually ease off if you stop taking the tablets. There are also a number of other uncommon side-effects - see the leaflet in the tablet packet for details.
what is antigenic activity?
Antigenic activity is the ability of a chemical compound (usually a
protein or peptide) to elicit an immune response in a host. The large
number of clonal variants in the host and the ability of those clones to
mutate allow the host to respond to virutally an unlimited number of
antigens. The antigens are taken up by the host by a number of different
means and are processed by the immune system. Usually this involves
phagocytosis and partial digestion by macrophages. The processed antigen
is then presented to immune compartment cells (T cells and B cells), which
clonally expand in response to activation. The presentation of antigen can
occur in the gut or other mucosal lymphoid compartments. The activated
immune cells are often expanded in regional lymph nodes.
protein or peptide) to elicit an immune response in a host. The large
number of clonal variants in the host and the ability of those clones to
mutate allow the host to respond to virutally an unlimited number of
antigens. The antigens are taken up by the host by a number of different
means and are processed by the immune system. Usually this involves
phagocytosis and partial digestion by macrophages. The processed antigen
is then presented to immune compartment cells (T cells and B cells), which
clonally expand in response to activation. The presentation of antigen can
occur in the gut or other mucosal lymphoid compartments. The activated
immune cells are often expanded in regional lymph nodes.
What is an anticoagulant?
What is an anticoagulant?
Anticoagulants are drugs that prevent harmful blood clots forming in your blood vessels. They do this by slowing down the clotting process. The medication you will be on will be specified in your yellow book.
Are there any side effects?
If you take your anticoagulant as recommended by the Anticoagulant Clinic, it is unlikely that you will have any problems.
However, you should look out for signs of bruising or bleeding and report them to the Clinic or your family doctor as soon as possible.
Women experiencing unusually heavy periods especially with the passage of clots should also report these symptoms.
Rare minor side effects may include loss of appetite, nausea, a rash or hair loss.
How long will I need to take the anticoagulants for?
The length of time will depend on the condition requiring treatment with anticoagulant. Your doctor would usually advise on the duration at the start of your treatment. Some patients require treatment for a few months; others will need this indefinitely.
When should I take the anticoagulant?
You should take the anticoagulant once a day, at roughly the same time. We recommend that it be taken between 6pm and 8pm.
At the Clinic, we will manage your anticoagulant treatment and tell you what dose you should be taking. We will also tell you when to have a blood test and when it is time to stop taking anticoagulants, if appropriate.
What dose of anticoagulant should I take?
The amount of anticoagulant needed varies from patient to patient. Your dose will depend on the results of a regular blood test that measures how long it takes your blood to clot.
The result is given as the International Normalised Ratio (INR). As a rough guide, if your blood takes twice as long to clot as normal, your INR will be 2. If it takes three times longer, your INR will be 3, and so on. Your doctor will set the target INR that is right for you.
After every blood test, you will be advised of the dose of anticoagulant required to maintain your INR within a set range. Occasionally, your dose may need alteration to maintain your INR in the desired range.
Where can I have my INR blood test?
You can have blood taken at:
* The Royal Berkshire Hospital Pathology department - at any time between 8.30am and 4pm on weekdays.
* Newbury District Hospital Pathology department - between 8.30am and 10am on weekdays.
* At your doctor's surgery - you will need to book an appointment with the nurse.
All these places will send your blood to the Clinic for testing. It is
essential that you always send your yellow book with the sample.
How often will I need to have an INR blood test?
You will need to have weekly INR tests when you begin taking anticoagulants. As your INR becomes more stable, blood tests will become less frequent, perhaps only once every few months.
It is very important that you have regular INR tests to check the dose of anticoagulant you need. If you are unable to have a test on the date advised, please let the Clinic know so that another date can be arranged as soon as possible.
How will I be told the results of my INR blood test?
The new dosage advice will be printed in your yellow book and posted to you by first class post to arrive the day after your blood test. However, if we consider you require an urgent change to your anticoagulant dose we will telephone you before 6pm on the day you had your blood test to let you know.
For this reason it is very important that the Clinic has a reliable telephone number where we can contact you. If you do not have a telephone, please give us the telephone number of a relative or neighbour who will be certain to pass on any urgent message from us at the Clinic. Please note that we will not leave messages on answer-phones unless they identify you by your full name.
Can I take other medicines whilst I am on anticoagulants?
Seek advice from the pharmacist when buying over the counter medicines and tell them that you are on anticoagulants. Also point out to any doctor who is prescribing or making a change to your medication that you are taking anticoagulants.
If you have been prescribed any new medications, you should inform the Clinic. New medications frequently upset the balance of your anticoagulation and you may be advised to have an INR test earlier. Medicines containing aspirin should only be taken if prescribed by your doctor. Ibuprofen and similar preparations should also be avoided. You can take paracetamol instead. You should avoid vitamin supplements that contain vitamin K.
Can what I eat or drink affect my anticoagulants?
You should eat a well balanced diet and avoid eating excessive amounts of foods rich in vitamin K. These include spinach, cabbage and other green leafy vegetables. Do not go on crash diets.
You should not consume more than moderate amounts of alcohol (2 units per day). Avoid binge drinking as it interferes with your anticoagulant treatment. A small amount every day is better than a large amount once a week.
You should also avoid cranberry juice as this can also affect anticoagulants.
What happens if I need an operation or dental treatment?
You should tell your doctor or dentist that you are taking anticoagulants well in
advance. Contact the Anticoagulant Clinic if you need advice. You may need to stop anticoagulants for a few days prior to an operation to reduce the risk of bleeding.
What should I do if I am injured whilst on anticoagulants?
In the event of a minor injury, apply constant pressure to the site for 5-10 minutes using a clean dry dressing. If your arm or leg is affected, raise it up to help stop the bleeding. If you are unable to stop the bleeding or suffer a more major injury, you should seek medical help at once.
What should I do if I think I may be pregnant?
Anticoagulants taken during the early weeks of pregnancy may damage the unborn baby. Therefore you should not plan to become pregnant without consulting your doctor.
If you think you may be pregnant while taking anticoagulants contact your doctor at once for advice.
What should I do if I plan to go away on holiday?
Advise us in the Clinic if you are going to be away in advance of your blood test. We can then attempt to arrange your next test so that it does not conflict with your holiday.
Anticoagulants are drugs that prevent harmful blood clots forming in your blood vessels. They do this by slowing down the clotting process. The medication you will be on will be specified in your yellow book.
Are there any side effects?
If you take your anticoagulant as recommended by the Anticoagulant Clinic, it is unlikely that you will have any problems.
However, you should look out for signs of bruising or bleeding and report them to the Clinic or your family doctor as soon as possible.
Women experiencing unusually heavy periods especially with the passage of clots should also report these symptoms.
Rare minor side effects may include loss of appetite, nausea, a rash or hair loss.
How long will I need to take the anticoagulants for?
The length of time will depend on the condition requiring treatment with anticoagulant. Your doctor would usually advise on the duration at the start of your treatment. Some patients require treatment for a few months; others will need this indefinitely.
When should I take the anticoagulant?
You should take the anticoagulant once a day, at roughly the same time. We recommend that it be taken between 6pm and 8pm.
At the Clinic, we will manage your anticoagulant treatment and tell you what dose you should be taking. We will also tell you when to have a blood test and when it is time to stop taking anticoagulants, if appropriate.
What dose of anticoagulant should I take?
The amount of anticoagulant needed varies from patient to patient. Your dose will depend on the results of a regular blood test that measures how long it takes your blood to clot.
The result is given as the International Normalised Ratio (INR). As a rough guide, if your blood takes twice as long to clot as normal, your INR will be 2. If it takes three times longer, your INR will be 3, and so on. Your doctor will set the target INR that is right for you.
After every blood test, you will be advised of the dose of anticoagulant required to maintain your INR within a set range. Occasionally, your dose may need alteration to maintain your INR in the desired range.
Where can I have my INR blood test?
You can have blood taken at:
* The Royal Berkshire Hospital Pathology department - at any time between 8.30am and 4pm on weekdays.
* Newbury District Hospital Pathology department - between 8.30am and 10am on weekdays.
* At your doctor's surgery - you will need to book an appointment with the nurse.
All these places will send your blood to the Clinic for testing. It is
essential that you always send your yellow book with the sample.
How often will I need to have an INR blood test?
You will need to have weekly INR tests when you begin taking anticoagulants. As your INR becomes more stable, blood tests will become less frequent, perhaps only once every few months.
It is very important that you have regular INR tests to check the dose of anticoagulant you need. If you are unable to have a test on the date advised, please let the Clinic know so that another date can be arranged as soon as possible.
How will I be told the results of my INR blood test?
The new dosage advice will be printed in your yellow book and posted to you by first class post to arrive the day after your blood test. However, if we consider you require an urgent change to your anticoagulant dose we will telephone you before 6pm on the day you had your blood test to let you know.
For this reason it is very important that the Clinic has a reliable telephone number where we can contact you. If you do not have a telephone, please give us the telephone number of a relative or neighbour who will be certain to pass on any urgent message from us at the Clinic. Please note that we will not leave messages on answer-phones unless they identify you by your full name.
Can I take other medicines whilst I am on anticoagulants?
Seek advice from the pharmacist when buying over the counter medicines and tell them that you are on anticoagulants. Also point out to any doctor who is prescribing or making a change to your medication that you are taking anticoagulants.
If you have been prescribed any new medications, you should inform the Clinic. New medications frequently upset the balance of your anticoagulation and you may be advised to have an INR test earlier. Medicines containing aspirin should only be taken if prescribed by your doctor. Ibuprofen and similar preparations should also be avoided. You can take paracetamol instead. You should avoid vitamin supplements that contain vitamin K.
Can what I eat or drink affect my anticoagulants?
You should eat a well balanced diet and avoid eating excessive amounts of foods rich in vitamin K. These include spinach, cabbage and other green leafy vegetables. Do not go on crash diets.
You should not consume more than moderate amounts of alcohol (2 units per day). Avoid binge drinking as it interferes with your anticoagulant treatment. A small amount every day is better than a large amount once a week.
You should also avoid cranberry juice as this can also affect anticoagulants.
What happens if I need an operation or dental treatment?
You should tell your doctor or dentist that you are taking anticoagulants well in
advance. Contact the Anticoagulant Clinic if you need advice. You may need to stop anticoagulants for a few days prior to an operation to reduce the risk of bleeding.
What should I do if I am injured whilst on anticoagulants?
In the event of a minor injury, apply constant pressure to the site for 5-10 minutes using a clean dry dressing. If your arm or leg is affected, raise it up to help stop the bleeding. If you are unable to stop the bleeding or suffer a more major injury, you should seek medical help at once.
What should I do if I think I may be pregnant?
Anticoagulants taken during the early weeks of pregnancy may damage the unborn baby. Therefore you should not plan to become pregnant without consulting your doctor.
If you think you may be pregnant while taking anticoagulants contact your doctor at once for advice.
What should I do if I plan to go away on holiday?
Advise us in the Clinic if you are going to be away in advance of your blood test. We can then attempt to arrange your next test so that it does not conflict with your holiday.
what is antifungal ?
A drug that treats infections caused by fungi. Anti-fungal drugs include amphotericin B, fluconazole, flucytosine, metronidazole, mycostatin, nystatin, and voriconazole.
What is Antifreeze ?
Antifreeze, also known as engine coolant, is a liquid substance which circulates through an internal combustion engine and draws off excessive heat. The two most common chemicals used as antifreeze are ethylene and propylene glycol, both of which have lower freezing points than water (32° Fahrenheit or 0° Celsius). This allows antifreeze to flow freely even under cold winter conditions. Antifreeze also has a higher boiling point than pure water, which makes it ideal for summer use as well.
Internal combustion engines generate a significant amount of heat as part of their normal operations. This heat is eventually transferred to the metallic and synthetic parts of the engine block, which in turn causes friction and expansion. Engine oils and lubricants may reduce the friction, but the heat still needs to dissipate away from the engine. This is where antifreeze enters the picture. A closed system of hoses and a water pump circulates either pure antifreeze or a water/antifreeze mixture throughout the engine block.
The excessive heat is drawn away by the 'heat sink' effect of the antifreeze chemicals. By the time the antifreeze has passed through the entire engine block, it may be near the boiling point of water. This superheated liquid is pumped into a radiator placed in the front of the engine compartment. A combination of outside air and forced air from a fan help to reduce the temperature. The radiator itself has numerous chambers and channels which allow heat to pass through to the outside air as well. As the antifreeze reaches the other side of the radiator, it should be cool enough to re-enter the engine block and start the process all over again.
Not all antifreeze compounds are created equal. Some are intended for regions with extreme temperature variations, while other are formulated for summer months with higher heat ranges. There may also be variations in the ratio of water to antifreeze for optimal operations. Too little antifreeze can lead to boil-overs or a completely frozen radiator. Too much antifreeze may not harm the car's operation, but it can be too expensive for drivers to use undiluted product all of the time. Antifreeze is generally inexpensive, but occasionally there are sudden price spikes as demand rises and supplies run low.
One important thing to keep in mind is the poisonous nature of ethylene or propylene glycol. Antifreeze can smell sweet and look inviting to pets and small children. Ingestion of antifreeze can cause serious illness or even death, so containers should be kept in secured storage areas. If a pet ingests antifreeze, a veterinarian should be contacted immediately for emergency services. Even if you store your own antifreeze carefully, neighbors may not be so conscientious.
Internal combustion engines generate a significant amount of heat as part of their normal operations. This heat is eventually transferred to the metallic and synthetic parts of the engine block, which in turn causes friction and expansion. Engine oils and lubricants may reduce the friction, but the heat still needs to dissipate away from the engine. This is where antifreeze enters the picture. A closed system of hoses and a water pump circulates either pure antifreeze or a water/antifreeze mixture throughout the engine block.
The excessive heat is drawn away by the 'heat sink' effect of the antifreeze chemicals. By the time the antifreeze has passed through the entire engine block, it may be near the boiling point of water. This superheated liquid is pumped into a radiator placed in the front of the engine compartment. A combination of outside air and forced air from a fan help to reduce the temperature. The radiator itself has numerous chambers and channels which allow heat to pass through to the outside air as well. As the antifreeze reaches the other side of the radiator, it should be cool enough to re-enter the engine block and start the process all over again.
Not all antifreeze compounds are created equal. Some are intended for regions with extreme temperature variations, while other are formulated for summer months with higher heat ranges. There may also be variations in the ratio of water to antifreeze for optimal operations. Too little antifreeze can lead to boil-overs or a completely frozen radiator. Too much antifreeze may not harm the car's operation, but it can be too expensive for drivers to use undiluted product all of the time. Antifreeze is generally inexpensive, but occasionally there are sudden price spikes as demand rises and supplies run low.
One important thing to keep in mind is the poisonous nature of ethylene or propylene glycol. Antifreeze can smell sweet and look inviting to pets and small children. Ingestion of antifreeze can cause serious illness or even death, so containers should be kept in secured storage areas. If a pet ingests antifreeze, a veterinarian should be contacted immediately for emergency services. Even if you store your own antifreeze carefully, neighbors may not be so conscientious.
what is Antioxidant ?
Antioxidant – what is Antioxidant ?
Antioxidant is a substance that inhibits oxidation and can guard the body from the damaging effects of free radicals. Molecules with one or more unpaired electrons, free radicals can destroy cells and play a role in many diseases.
Antioxidant may help prevent macular degeneration and other serious eye diseases.
Well-known Antioxidant include a number of enzymes and other substances such as vitamin C, vitamin E and beta carotene (which is converted to vitamin A) that are capable of counteracting the damaging effects of oxidation.
Antioxidant is also commonly added to food products like vegetable oils and prepared foods to prevent or delay their deterioration from the action of air.
Antioxidant may possibly reduce the risks of cancer and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
Antioxidant clearly slow the progression of AMD.
In Antioxidant, studies have shown that eating a diet rich in Antioxidant containing foods, such as fruits, vegetables and whole grains, has been linked to a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
Antioxidant is a substance that inhibits oxidation and can guard the body from the damaging effects of free radicals. Molecules with one or more unpaired electrons, free radicals can destroy cells and play a role in many diseases.
Antioxidant may help prevent macular degeneration and other serious eye diseases.
Well-known Antioxidant include a number of enzymes and other substances such as vitamin C, vitamin E and beta carotene (which is converted to vitamin A) that are capable of counteracting the damaging effects of oxidation.
Antioxidant is also commonly added to food products like vegetable oils and prepared foods to prevent or delay their deterioration from the action of air.
Antioxidant may possibly reduce the risks of cancer and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
Antioxidant clearly slow the progression of AMD.
In Antioxidant, studies have shown that eating a diet rich in Antioxidant containing foods, such as fruits, vegetables and whole grains, has been linked to a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.
What is Antibiotic Resistance?
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to withstand the effects of an antibiotic. This resistance develops through gene action or plasmid exchange between bacteria of the same species. If a bacterium carries several resistant genes, it is called multiresistant or, as it is often described, a 'superbug'.
Essentially, antibiotic resistance develops as a result of natural selection. The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure, and those bacteria with mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation.
Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage can have a dramatic affect on the prevalence of resistant organisms. Other factors contributing to resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, and the use of antibiotics as livestock food additives for growth promotion.
Staphylococcus aureus (Staph aureus) is one of the major resistant pathogens. It is found on the mucous membranes and the skin of around a third of the population it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium found to be resistant to penicillin; it was discoverd just 4 years after penicillin began to be mass-produced.
Penicillin-resistant pneumonia (or pneumococcus, caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae) was first detected in 1967 as was penicillin-resistant gonorrhea. Other strains with some levels of antibiotic resistance include Salmonella, Campylobacteria, and Streptococci.
Unlike antibiotics, vaccines do not contribute to resistance. Vaccines work by enhancing the body's natural defenses, whereas antibiotics operate in lieu of the body's normal defenses.
Essentially, antibiotic resistance develops as a result of natural selection. The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure, and those bacteria with mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce. They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation.
Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage can have a dramatic affect on the prevalence of resistant organisms. Other factors contributing to resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, and the use of antibiotics as livestock food additives for growth promotion.
Staphylococcus aureus (Staph aureus) is one of the major resistant pathogens. It is found on the mucous membranes and the skin of around a third of the population it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium found to be resistant to penicillin; it was discoverd just 4 years after penicillin began to be mass-produced.
Penicillin-resistant pneumonia (or pneumococcus, caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae) was first detected in 1967 as was penicillin-resistant gonorrhea. Other strains with some levels of antibiotic resistance include Salmonella, Campylobacteria, and Streptococci.
Unlike antibiotics, vaccines do not contribute to resistance. Vaccines work by enhancing the body's natural defenses, whereas antibiotics operate in lieu of the body's normal defenses.
What is Anti-Virus?
What is Anti-Virus?
Answer:
Anti-virus is the name given to software that detects and (where possible) removes viruses from messages. By removing viruses at the email server, all internal mail clients are protected AND all customers are protected from receiving viruses too.
Computer Viruses are written by people who wish to gain control of your system resources and are continually updated to try and break through any barriers you may have installed. GMS Anti-Virus overcomes this issue by providing a "signature file" update service which ensures that all new varients are caught as soon as possible.
Answer:
Anti-virus is the name given to software that detects and (where possible) removes viruses from messages. By removing viruses at the email server, all internal mail clients are protected AND all customers are protected from receiving viruses too.
Computer Viruses are written by people who wish to gain control of your system resources and are continually updated to try and break through any barriers you may have installed. GMS Anti-Virus overcomes this issue by providing a "signature file" update service which ensures that all new varients are caught as soon as possible.
what is AIDS & HIV ?
Basic Facts About HIV/AIDS
What is HIV?
HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It is the virus that causes AIDS. A member of a group of viruses called retroviruses, HIV infects human cells and uses the energy and nutrients provided by those cells to grow and reproduce.
What is AIDS?
AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is a disease in which the body's immune system breaks down and is unable to fight off infections, known as "opportunistic infections," and other illnesses that take advantage of a weakened immune system.
When a person is infected with HIV, the virus enters the body and lives and multiplies primarily in the white blood cells. These are immune cells that normally protect us from disease. The hallmark of HIV infection is the progressive loss of a specific type of immune cell called T-helper, or CD4, cells. As the virus grows, it damages or kills these and other cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the person vulnerable to various opportunistic infections and other illnesses ranging from pneumonia to cancer. A person can receive a clinical diagnosis of AIDS, as defined by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), if he or she has tested positive for HIV and meets one or both of theses conditions:
# The presence of one or more AIDS-related infections or illnesses;
# A CD4 count that has reached or fallen below 200 cells per cubic millimeter of blood. Also called the T-cell count, the CD4 count ranges from 450 to 1200 in healthy individuals.
How quickly do people infected with HIV develop AIDS?
In some people, the T-cell decline and opportunistic infections that signal AIDS develop soon after infection with HIV. But most people do not develop symptoms for 10 to 12 years, and a few remain symptom-free for much longer. As with most diseases, early medical care can help prolong a person's life.
How many people are affected by HIV/AIDS?
The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that there are now 40 million people living with HIV or AIDS worldwide. Most of them do not know they carry HIV and may be spreading the virus to others. In the U.S., approximately one million people have HIV or AIDS, and 40,000 Americans become newly infected with HIV each year. According to the CDC, it is estimated that a quarter of all people with HIV in the U.S. do not know they are carrying
the virus.
Since the beginning of the epidemic, AIDS has killed more than 25 million people worldwide, including more than 500,000 Americans. AIDS has replaced malaria and tuberculosis as the world's deadliest infectious disease among adults and is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. Fifteen million children have been orphaned by the epidemic.
How is HIV transmitted?
A person who has HIV carries the virus in certain body fluids, including blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast milk. The virus can be transmitted only if such HIV-infected fluids enter the bloodstream of another person. This kind of direct entry can occur (1) through the linings of the vagina, rectum, mouth, and the opening at the tip of the penis; (2) through intravenous injection with a syringe; or (3) through a break in the skin, such as a cut or sore. Usually, HIV is transmitted through:
# Unprotected sexual intercourse (either vaginal or anal) with someone who has HIV. Women are at greater risk of HIV infection through vaginal sex than men, although the virus can also be transmitted from women to men. Anal sex (whether male-male or male-female) poses a high risk mainly to the receptive partner, because the lining of the anus and rectum is extremely thin and is filled with small blood vessels that can be easily injured during intercourse.
# Unprotected oral sex with someone who has HIV . There are far fewer cases of HIV transmission attributed to oral sex than to either vaginal or anal intercourse, but oral-genital contact poses a clear risk of HIV infection, particularly when ejaculation occurs in the mouth. This risk goes up when either partner has cuts or sores, such as those caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs), recent tooth-brushing, or canker sores, which can allow the virus to enter the bloodstream.
# Sharing needles or syringes with someone who is HIV infected. Laboratory studies show that infectious HIV can survive in used syringes for a month or more. That's why people who inject drugs should never reuse or share syringes, water, or drug preparation equipment. This includes needles or syringes used to inject illegal drugs such as heroin, as well as steroids. Other types of needles, such as those used for body piercing and tattoos, can also carry HIV.
# Infection during pregnancy, childbirth, or breast-feeding (mother-to-infant transmission). Any woman who is pregnant or considering becoming pregnant and thinks she may have been exposed to HIV-even if the exposure occurred years ago-should seek testing and counseling. In the U.S., mother-to-infant transmission has dropped to just a few cases each year because pregnant women are routinely tested for HIV. Those who test positive can get drugs to prevent HIV from being passed on to a fetus or infant, and they are counseled not to breast-feed.
How is HIV not transmitted?
HIV is not an easy virus to pass from one person to another. It is not transmitted through food or air (for instance, by coughing or sneezing). There has never been a case where a person was infected by a household member, relative, co-worker, or friend through casual or everyday contact such as sharing eating utensils or bathroom facilities, or through hugging or kissing. (Most scientists agree that while HIV transmission through deep or prolonged "French" kissing may be possible, it would be extremely unlikely.) Here in the U.S., screening the blood supply for HIV has virtually eliminated the risk of infection through blood transfusions (and you cannot get HIV from giving blood at a blood bank or other established blood collection center). Sweat, tears, vomit, feces, and urine do contain HIV, but have not been reported to transmit the disease (apart from two cases involving transmission from fecal matter via cut skin). Mosquitoes, fleas, and other insects do not transmit HIV.
How can I reduce my risk of becoming infected with HIV through sexual contact?
If you are sexually active, protect yourself against HIV by practicing safer sex.
Whenever you have sex, use a condom or "dental dam" (a square of latex recommended for use during oral-genital and oral-anal sex). When used properly and consistently, condoms are extremely effective. But remember:
# Use only latex condoms (or dental dams). Lambskin products provide little protection against HIV.
# Use only water-based lubricants. Latex condoms are virtually useless when combined with oil- or petroleum-based lubricants such as Vaseline® or hand lotion. (People with latex allergies can use polyethylene condoms with oil-based lubricants).
# Use protection each and every time you have sex.
# If necessary, consult a nurse, doctor, or health educator for guidance on the proper use of latex barriers.
Are there other ways to avoid getting HIV through sex?
The male condom is the only widely available barrier against sexual transmission of HIV. Female condoms are fairly unpopular in the U.S. and still relatively expensive, but they are gaining acceptance in some developing countries. Efforts are also under way to develop topical creams or gels called "microbicides," which could be applied prior to sexual intercourse to kill HIV and prevent other STIs that facilitate HIV infection.
Is there a link between HIV and other sexually transmitted infections?
Having a sexually transmitted infection (STI) can increase your risk of acquiring and transmitting HIV. This is true whether you have open sores or breaks in the skin (as with syphilis, herpes, and chancroid) or not (as with chlamydia and gonorrhea). Where there are breaks in the skin, HIV can enter and exit the bloodstream more easily. But even when there are no breaks in the skin, STIs can cause biological changes, such as swelling of tissue, that may make HIV transmission more likely. Studies show that HIV-positive individuals who are infected with another STI are three to five times more likely to contract or transmit the virus through sexual contact.
How can I avoid acquiring HIV from a contaminated syringe?
If you are injecting drugs of any type, including steroids, do not share syringes or other injection equipment with anyone else. (Disinfecting previously used needles and syringes with bleach can reduce the risk of HIV transmission). If you are planning to have any part of your body pierced or to get a tattoo, be sure to see a qualified professional who uses sterile equipment. Detailed HIV prevention information for drug users who continue to inject is available from the CDC's National Prevention Information Network at 1-800-458-5321 or online at www.cdc.gov/idu.
Are some people at greater risk of HIV infection than others?
HIV does not discriminate. It is not who you are, but what you do that determines whether you can become infected with HIV. In the U.S., roughly half of all new HIV infections are related directly or indirectly to injection drug use, i.e., using HIV-contaminated needles or having sexual contact with an HIV-infected drug user. With 40,000 Americans contracting HIV each year, there are clearly many people who are still engaging in high-risk behaviors, and infection rates remain alarmingly high among young people, women, African Americans, and Hispanics.
Are women especially vulnerable to HIV?
Women are at least twice as likely to contract HIV through vaginal sex with infected males than vice versa. This biological vulnerability is worsened by social and cultural factors that often undermine women's ability to avoid sex with partners who are HIV-infected or to insist on condom use. In the U.S., the proportion of HIV/AIDS cases among women more than tripled from 8 percent in 1985 to 27% in 2004. African American and Hispanic women, who represent less than one-quarter of U.S. women, account for 80% of new HIV infections among American women each year.
Are young people at significant risk of HIV infection?
At least half of the 40,000 Americans newly infected with HIV each year are under the age of 25. Roughly two young Americans become infected with HIV every hour
of every day, and many of the people now living with HIV in the U.S. became infected when they were teenagers. Statistics show that by the 12th grade, about 60 percent of American youth are sexually active, and two-thirds of STIs affect people under age 25. Many young people also use drugs and alcohol, which can increase the likelihood that they will engage in high-risk sexual behavior.
Are there treatments for HIV/AIDS?
For many years, there were no effective treatments for AIDS. Today, a number of drugs are available to treat HIV infection and AIDS. Some of these are designed to treat the opportunistic infections and illnesses that affect people with HIV/AIDS.
In addition, several types of drugs seek to prevent HIV itself from reproducing and destroying the body's immune system:
# Reverse transcriptase inhibitors attack an HIV enzyme called reverse transcriptase. They include abacavir, delavirdine, didanosine (ddl), efavirenz, emtricitabine (FTC), lamivudine (3TC), nevirapine, stavudine (d4T), tenofovir, zalcitabine (ddC), and zidovudine (AZT);
# Protease inhibitors attack the HIV enzyme protease and include amprenavir, atazanavir, fosamprenavir, indinavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, tipranavir, and darunavir.
# Fusion inhibitors stop virus from entering cells. To date, only one fusion inhibitor, enfuvirtide, has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration.
Many HIV patients take these drugs in combination-a regimen known as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). When taken as directed, anti-HIV treatment can reduce the amount of HIV in the bloodstream to very low levels and sometimes enables the body's immune cells to rebound to normal levels.
Several drugs can be taken to help prevent a number of opportunistic infections including Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcus and cytomegalovirus infection. Once opportunistic infections occur, the same drugs can be used at higher doses to treat these infections, and chemotherapy drugs are available to treat the cancers that commonly occur in AIDS.
Researchers are continuing to develop new drugs that act at critical steps in the virus's life cycle. Efforts are under way to identify new targets for anti-HIV medications and to discover ways of restoring the ability of damaged immune systems to defend against HIV and the many illnesses that affect people with HIV. Ultimately, advances in rebuilding the immune systems of HIV patients will benefit people with a number of serious illnesses, including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and immune deficiencies associated with aging and premature birth.
Is there a cure for AIDS?
There is still no cure for AIDS. And while new drugs are helping some people who have HIV live longer, healthier lives, there are many problems associated with them:
# Anti-HIV drugs are highly toxic and can cause serious side effects, including heart damage, kidney failure, and osteoporosis. Many (perhaps even most) patients cannot tolerate long-term treatment with HAART.
# HIV mutates quickly. Even among those who do well on HAART, roughly half of patients experience treatment failure within a year or two, often because the virus develops resistance to existing drugs. In fact, as many as 10 to 20 percent of newly infected Americans are acquiring viral strains that may already be resistant to current drugs.
# Because treatment regimens are unpleasant and complex, many patients miss doses of their medication. Failure to take anti-HIV drugs on schedule and in the prescribed dosage encourages the development of new drug-resistant viral strains.
# Even when patients respond well to treatment, HAART does not eradicate HIV. The virus continues to replicate at low levels and often remains hidden in "reservoirs" in the body, such as in the lymph nodes and brain.
In the U.S., the number of AIDS-related deaths has decreased dramatically because of widely available, potent treatments. But more than 95 percent of all people with HIV/AIDS live in the developing world, and many have little or no access to treatment.
Is there a vaccine to prevent HIV infection?
Despite continued intensive research, experts believe it will be at least a decade before we have a safe, effective, and affordable AIDS vaccine. And even after a vaccine is developed, it will take many years before the millions of people at risk of HIV infection worldwide can be immunized. Until then, other HIV prevention methods, such as practicing safer sex and using sterile syringes, will remain critical.
Can you tell whether someone has HIV or AIDS?
You cannot tell by looking at someone whether he or she is infected with HIV or has AIDS. An infected person can appear completely healthy. But anyone infected with HIV can infect other people, even if they have no symptoms.
How can I know if I'm infected?
Immediately after infection, some people may develop mild, temporary flu-like symptoms or persistently swollen glands. Even if you look and feel healthy, you may be infected. The only way to know your HIV status for sure is to be tested for HIV antibodies-proteins the body produces in an effort to fight off infection. This usually requires a blood sample. If a person's blood has HIV antibodies, that means the person is infected.
Should I get tested?
If you think you might have been exposed to HIV, you should get tested as soon as possible. Here's why:
# Even in the early stages of infection, you can take concrete steps to protect your long-term health. Regular check-ups with a doctor who has experience with HIV/AIDS will enable you (and your family members or loved ones) to make the best decisions about whether and when to begin anti-HIV treatment, without waiting until you get sick.
# Taking an active approach to managing HIV may give you many more years of healthy life than you would otherwise have.
# If you are HIV positive, you will be able to take the precautions necessary to protect others from becoming infected.
# If you are HIV positive and pregnant, you can take medications and other precautions to significantly reduce the risk of infecting your infant, including not breast-feeding.
How can I get tested?
Most people are tested by private physicians, at local health department facilities, or in hospitals. In addition, many states offer anonymous HIV testing. It is important to seek testing at a place that also provides counseling about HIV and AIDS. Counselors can answer questions about high-risk behavior and suggest ways you can protect yourself and others in the future. They can also help you understand the meaning of the test results and refer you to local AIDS-related resources.
Though less readily available, there is also a viral load test that can reveal the presence of HIV in the blood within three to five days of initial exposure, as well as highly accurate saliva tests that are nearly equivalent to blood tests in determining HIV antibody status. In some clinics you can get a test called OraQuick® that gives a preliminary result in 20 minutes. You can also purchase a kit that allows you to collect your own blood sample, send it to a lab for testing, and receive the results anonymously. Only the Home Access® brand kit is approved by the Food and Drug Administration. It can be found at most drugstores.
Keep in mind that while most blood tests are able to detect HIV infection within four weeks of initial exposure, it can sometimes take as long as three to six months for HIV antibodies to reach detectable levels. The CDC currently recommends testing six months after the last possible exposure to HIV.
What is HIV?
HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It is the virus that causes AIDS. A member of a group of viruses called retroviruses, HIV infects human cells and uses the energy and nutrients provided by those cells to grow and reproduce.
What is AIDS?
AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is a disease in which the body's immune system breaks down and is unable to fight off infections, known as "opportunistic infections," and other illnesses that take advantage of a weakened immune system.
When a person is infected with HIV, the virus enters the body and lives and multiplies primarily in the white blood cells. These are immune cells that normally protect us from disease. The hallmark of HIV infection is the progressive loss of a specific type of immune cell called T-helper, or CD4, cells. As the virus grows, it damages or kills these and other cells, weakening the immune system and leaving the person vulnerable to various opportunistic infections and other illnesses ranging from pneumonia to cancer. A person can receive a clinical diagnosis of AIDS, as defined by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), if he or she has tested positive for HIV and meets one or both of theses conditions:
# The presence of one or more AIDS-related infections or illnesses;
# A CD4 count that has reached or fallen below 200 cells per cubic millimeter of blood. Also called the T-cell count, the CD4 count ranges from 450 to 1200 in healthy individuals.
How quickly do people infected with HIV develop AIDS?
In some people, the T-cell decline and opportunistic infections that signal AIDS develop soon after infection with HIV. But most people do not develop symptoms for 10 to 12 years, and a few remain symptom-free for much longer. As with most diseases, early medical care can help prolong a person's life.
How many people are affected by HIV/AIDS?
The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that there are now 40 million people living with HIV or AIDS worldwide. Most of them do not know they carry HIV and may be spreading the virus to others. In the U.S., approximately one million people have HIV or AIDS, and 40,000 Americans become newly infected with HIV each year. According to the CDC, it is estimated that a quarter of all people with HIV in the U.S. do not know they are carrying
the virus.
Since the beginning of the epidemic, AIDS has killed more than 25 million people worldwide, including more than 500,000 Americans. AIDS has replaced malaria and tuberculosis as the world's deadliest infectious disease among adults and is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. Fifteen million children have been orphaned by the epidemic.
How is HIV transmitted?
A person who has HIV carries the virus in certain body fluids, including blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast milk. The virus can be transmitted only if such HIV-infected fluids enter the bloodstream of another person. This kind of direct entry can occur (1) through the linings of the vagina, rectum, mouth, and the opening at the tip of the penis; (2) through intravenous injection with a syringe; or (3) through a break in the skin, such as a cut or sore. Usually, HIV is transmitted through:
# Unprotected sexual intercourse (either vaginal or anal) with someone who has HIV. Women are at greater risk of HIV infection through vaginal sex than men, although the virus can also be transmitted from women to men. Anal sex (whether male-male or male-female) poses a high risk mainly to the receptive partner, because the lining of the anus and rectum is extremely thin and is filled with small blood vessels that can be easily injured during intercourse.
# Unprotected oral sex with someone who has HIV . There are far fewer cases of HIV transmission attributed to oral sex than to either vaginal or anal intercourse, but oral-genital contact poses a clear risk of HIV infection, particularly when ejaculation occurs in the mouth. This risk goes up when either partner has cuts or sores, such as those caused by sexually transmitted infections (STIs), recent tooth-brushing, or canker sores, which can allow the virus to enter the bloodstream.
# Sharing needles or syringes with someone who is HIV infected. Laboratory studies show that infectious HIV can survive in used syringes for a month or more. That's why people who inject drugs should never reuse or share syringes, water, or drug preparation equipment. This includes needles or syringes used to inject illegal drugs such as heroin, as well as steroids. Other types of needles, such as those used for body piercing and tattoos, can also carry HIV.
# Infection during pregnancy, childbirth, or breast-feeding (mother-to-infant transmission). Any woman who is pregnant or considering becoming pregnant and thinks she may have been exposed to HIV-even if the exposure occurred years ago-should seek testing and counseling. In the U.S., mother-to-infant transmission has dropped to just a few cases each year because pregnant women are routinely tested for HIV. Those who test positive can get drugs to prevent HIV from being passed on to a fetus or infant, and they are counseled not to breast-feed.
How is HIV not transmitted?
HIV is not an easy virus to pass from one person to another. It is not transmitted through food or air (for instance, by coughing or sneezing). There has never been a case where a person was infected by a household member, relative, co-worker, or friend through casual or everyday contact such as sharing eating utensils or bathroom facilities, or through hugging or kissing. (Most scientists agree that while HIV transmission through deep or prolonged "French" kissing may be possible, it would be extremely unlikely.) Here in the U.S., screening the blood supply for HIV has virtually eliminated the risk of infection through blood transfusions (and you cannot get HIV from giving blood at a blood bank or other established blood collection center). Sweat, tears, vomit, feces, and urine do contain HIV, but have not been reported to transmit the disease (apart from two cases involving transmission from fecal matter via cut skin). Mosquitoes, fleas, and other insects do not transmit HIV.
How can I reduce my risk of becoming infected with HIV through sexual contact?
If you are sexually active, protect yourself against HIV by practicing safer sex.
Whenever you have sex, use a condom or "dental dam" (a square of latex recommended for use during oral-genital and oral-anal sex). When used properly and consistently, condoms are extremely effective. But remember:
# Use only latex condoms (or dental dams). Lambskin products provide little protection against HIV.
# Use only water-based lubricants. Latex condoms are virtually useless when combined with oil- or petroleum-based lubricants such as Vaseline® or hand lotion. (People with latex allergies can use polyethylene condoms with oil-based lubricants).
# Use protection each and every time you have sex.
# If necessary, consult a nurse, doctor, or health educator for guidance on the proper use of latex barriers.
Are there other ways to avoid getting HIV through sex?
The male condom is the only widely available barrier against sexual transmission of HIV. Female condoms are fairly unpopular in the U.S. and still relatively expensive, but they are gaining acceptance in some developing countries. Efforts are also under way to develop topical creams or gels called "microbicides," which could be applied prior to sexual intercourse to kill HIV and prevent other STIs that facilitate HIV infection.
Is there a link between HIV and other sexually transmitted infections?
Having a sexually transmitted infection (STI) can increase your risk of acquiring and transmitting HIV. This is true whether you have open sores or breaks in the skin (as with syphilis, herpes, and chancroid) or not (as with chlamydia and gonorrhea). Where there are breaks in the skin, HIV can enter and exit the bloodstream more easily. But even when there are no breaks in the skin, STIs can cause biological changes, such as swelling of tissue, that may make HIV transmission more likely. Studies show that HIV-positive individuals who are infected with another STI are three to five times more likely to contract or transmit the virus through sexual contact.
How can I avoid acquiring HIV from a contaminated syringe?
If you are injecting drugs of any type, including steroids, do not share syringes or other injection equipment with anyone else. (Disinfecting previously used needles and syringes with bleach can reduce the risk of HIV transmission). If you are planning to have any part of your body pierced or to get a tattoo, be sure to see a qualified professional who uses sterile equipment. Detailed HIV prevention information for drug users who continue to inject is available from the CDC's National Prevention Information Network at 1-800-458-5321 or online at www.cdc.gov/idu.
Are some people at greater risk of HIV infection than others?
HIV does not discriminate. It is not who you are, but what you do that determines whether you can become infected with HIV. In the U.S., roughly half of all new HIV infections are related directly or indirectly to injection drug use, i.e., using HIV-contaminated needles or having sexual contact with an HIV-infected drug user. With 40,000 Americans contracting HIV each year, there are clearly many people who are still engaging in high-risk behaviors, and infection rates remain alarmingly high among young people, women, African Americans, and Hispanics.
Are women especially vulnerable to HIV?
Women are at least twice as likely to contract HIV through vaginal sex with infected males than vice versa. This biological vulnerability is worsened by social and cultural factors that often undermine women's ability to avoid sex with partners who are HIV-infected or to insist on condom use. In the U.S., the proportion of HIV/AIDS cases among women more than tripled from 8 percent in 1985 to 27% in 2004. African American and Hispanic women, who represent less than one-quarter of U.S. women, account for 80% of new HIV infections among American women each year.
Are young people at significant risk of HIV infection?
At least half of the 40,000 Americans newly infected with HIV each year are under the age of 25. Roughly two young Americans become infected with HIV every hour
of every day, and many of the people now living with HIV in the U.S. became infected when they were teenagers. Statistics show that by the 12th grade, about 60 percent of American youth are sexually active, and two-thirds of STIs affect people under age 25. Many young people also use drugs and alcohol, which can increase the likelihood that they will engage in high-risk sexual behavior.
Are there treatments for HIV/AIDS?
For many years, there were no effective treatments for AIDS. Today, a number of drugs are available to treat HIV infection and AIDS. Some of these are designed to treat the opportunistic infections and illnesses that affect people with HIV/AIDS.
In addition, several types of drugs seek to prevent HIV itself from reproducing and destroying the body's immune system:
# Reverse transcriptase inhibitors attack an HIV enzyme called reverse transcriptase. They include abacavir, delavirdine, didanosine (ddl), efavirenz, emtricitabine (FTC), lamivudine (3TC), nevirapine, stavudine (d4T), tenofovir, zalcitabine (ddC), and zidovudine (AZT);
# Protease inhibitors attack the HIV enzyme protease and include amprenavir, atazanavir, fosamprenavir, indinavir, lopinavir, nelfinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, tipranavir, and darunavir.
# Fusion inhibitors stop virus from entering cells. To date, only one fusion inhibitor, enfuvirtide, has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration.
Many HIV patients take these drugs in combination-a regimen known as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). When taken as directed, anti-HIV treatment can reduce the amount of HIV in the bloodstream to very low levels and sometimes enables the body's immune cells to rebound to normal levels.
Several drugs can be taken to help prevent a number of opportunistic infections including Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcus and cytomegalovirus infection. Once opportunistic infections occur, the same drugs can be used at higher doses to treat these infections, and chemotherapy drugs are available to treat the cancers that commonly occur in AIDS.
Researchers are continuing to develop new drugs that act at critical steps in the virus's life cycle. Efforts are under way to identify new targets for anti-HIV medications and to discover ways of restoring the ability of damaged immune systems to defend against HIV and the many illnesses that affect people with HIV. Ultimately, advances in rebuilding the immune systems of HIV patients will benefit people with a number of serious illnesses, including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, multiple sclerosis, and immune deficiencies associated with aging and premature birth.
Is there a cure for AIDS?
There is still no cure for AIDS. And while new drugs are helping some people who have HIV live longer, healthier lives, there are many problems associated with them:
# Anti-HIV drugs are highly toxic and can cause serious side effects, including heart damage, kidney failure, and osteoporosis. Many (perhaps even most) patients cannot tolerate long-term treatment with HAART.
# HIV mutates quickly. Even among those who do well on HAART, roughly half of patients experience treatment failure within a year or two, often because the virus develops resistance to existing drugs. In fact, as many as 10 to 20 percent of newly infected Americans are acquiring viral strains that may already be resistant to current drugs.
# Because treatment regimens are unpleasant and complex, many patients miss doses of their medication. Failure to take anti-HIV drugs on schedule and in the prescribed dosage encourages the development of new drug-resistant viral strains.
# Even when patients respond well to treatment, HAART does not eradicate HIV. The virus continues to replicate at low levels and often remains hidden in "reservoirs" in the body, such as in the lymph nodes and brain.
In the U.S., the number of AIDS-related deaths has decreased dramatically because of widely available, potent treatments. But more than 95 percent of all people with HIV/AIDS live in the developing world, and many have little or no access to treatment.
Is there a vaccine to prevent HIV infection?
Despite continued intensive research, experts believe it will be at least a decade before we have a safe, effective, and affordable AIDS vaccine. And even after a vaccine is developed, it will take many years before the millions of people at risk of HIV infection worldwide can be immunized. Until then, other HIV prevention methods, such as practicing safer sex and using sterile syringes, will remain critical.
Can you tell whether someone has HIV or AIDS?
You cannot tell by looking at someone whether he or she is infected with HIV or has AIDS. An infected person can appear completely healthy. But anyone infected with HIV can infect other people, even if they have no symptoms.
How can I know if I'm infected?
Immediately after infection, some people may develop mild, temporary flu-like symptoms or persistently swollen glands. Even if you look and feel healthy, you may be infected. The only way to know your HIV status for sure is to be tested for HIV antibodies-proteins the body produces in an effort to fight off infection. This usually requires a blood sample. If a person's blood has HIV antibodies, that means the person is infected.
Should I get tested?
If you think you might have been exposed to HIV, you should get tested as soon as possible. Here's why:
# Even in the early stages of infection, you can take concrete steps to protect your long-term health. Regular check-ups with a doctor who has experience with HIV/AIDS will enable you (and your family members or loved ones) to make the best decisions about whether and when to begin anti-HIV treatment, without waiting until you get sick.
# Taking an active approach to managing HIV may give you many more years of healthy life than you would otherwise have.
# If you are HIV positive, you will be able to take the precautions necessary to protect others from becoming infected.
# If you are HIV positive and pregnant, you can take medications and other precautions to significantly reduce the risk of infecting your infant, including not breast-feeding.
How can I get tested?
Most people are tested by private physicians, at local health department facilities, or in hospitals. In addition, many states offer anonymous HIV testing. It is important to seek testing at a place that also provides counseling about HIV and AIDS. Counselors can answer questions about high-risk behavior and suggest ways you can protect yourself and others in the future. They can also help you understand the meaning of the test results and refer you to local AIDS-related resources.
Though less readily available, there is also a viral load test that can reveal the presence of HIV in the blood within three to five days of initial exposure, as well as highly accurate saliva tests that are nearly equivalent to blood tests in determining HIV antibody status. In some clinics you can get a test called OraQuick® that gives a preliminary result in 20 minutes. You can also purchase a kit that allows you to collect your own blood sample, send it to a lab for testing, and receive the results anonymously. Only the Home Access® brand kit is approved by the Food and Drug Administration. It can be found at most drugstores.
Keep in mind that while most blood tests are able to detect HIV infection within four weeks of initial exposure, it can sometimes take as long as three to six months for HIV antibodies to reach detectable levels. The CDC currently recommends testing six months after the last possible exposure to HIV.
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